AlKS.  Caki.  Schurz. 
The  first  kinck-r^artner  in  the  United  States. 


THE    KINDERGARTEN 

IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 


BY 


NINA   C.   VANDEWALKER,  B.L.,  M.Pd. 

DIRECTOR   OF  KINDERGARTEN   TRAINING   DEPARTMENT,  MILWAUKEE 

STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL.      FORMERLY   CRITIC   TEACHER   IN 

MICHIGAN   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL,   AND  TEACHER 

OF  METHODS   IN   WHITEWATER   STATE 

NORMAL  SCHOOL 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1917 

Ail  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  igo8, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  March,  1908.     Reprinted 
February,  1913;  November,  1917. 


NortoooB  iPresa 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


LB 

FOREWORD 

Wherever  the  democratic  idea  has  emerged  during 
the  past  century  it  has  been  accompanied  by  certain 
movements  which  have  tended  to  anchor  and  hold  it  fast. 
Of  all  such  social  phenomena  the  kindergarten  has  been 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  enduring. 

German  thinkers  had  been  for  half  a  century  consciously 
imaging  the  universal  ideals  of  freedom  and  unity  in  their 
literature,  philosophy,  and  art.  "  The  Faust, "  "  The  Ode 
to  Joy,"  "  The  Ninth  Symphony,"  and  Novalis'  "  Blue 
Flower  "  were  embodiments  of  that  national  spirit  which 
had  been  inarticulate  for  two  centuries.  At  last  the  Idee 
craved  political  expression  and  midway  down  the  century 
all  Europe  was  stirred  by  spirited  revolutions.  These 
revealed  the  extent  to  which  men's  hearts  were  reanimated 
with  courage  and  humanitarian  purpose.  New  social 
programs  were  offered  by  patriots  and  freethinkers  to 
the  several  governments  under  agitation.  For  the  most 
part  these  were  rejected  or  proscribed,  and  their  authors 
cast  out  across  the  waters,  only  to  propagate  and  quicken 
the  democratic  idea  wherever  they  were  received.  The 
United  States  being  made  by  and  for  such  as  these,  they 
came  from  Germany,  Hungary,  Italy,  Ireland,  and 
Bohemia  with  the  ideal  of  liberty  more  consciously  en- 
throned in  their  minds  than  ever  before. 


VI  FOREWORD 

In  spite  of  the  enforced  exodus  and  immediate  failures, 
a  new  ideal  had  been  made  to  shine  out  before  men,  and 
they  now  centered  their  hope  and  faith  upon  schemes  of 
reconstruction  by  means  of  child  education  and  child 
preservation.  It  was  then  that  the  kindergarten  was 
reached  out  for  by  the  rational-minded,  more  or  less  well 
understanding  its  remedial  nature.  An  inevitable  wel- 
come awaited  it  in  our  own  country,  where  it  has  proved  its 
basic  worth,  by  moving  naturally  and  steadily  forward 
on  the  national  stream,  which  is  ever  rising  toward  its 
level  of  a  true  democracy. 

And  now  another  half  century  has  passed  away,  pressed 
down  and  running  over  wqth  pioneer  intensities  and  exi- 
gencies, and  we  look  back  and  register  the  facts  of  this 
movement  and  call  it  history. 

The  story  of  the  kindergarten  in  America  involves  the 
naming  of  great  statesmen,  public-spirited  men  and 
women,  far-seeing  philanthropists  and  noble  thinkers,  as 
well  as  a  host  of  public  and  private  educators  who  have 
faithfully,  even  heroically,  served  to  project  the  idea  into 
the  practice  of  our  public  school  system. 

The  pioneer  stages  are  well  over  and  the  time  has  come 
for  these  records  to  be  made  accessible  to  all  students  and 
practitioners  of  education. 

It  is  therefore  with  peculiar  gratification  that  I  welcome 
this  history  of  the  kindergarten  in  America,  by  Miss 
Nina  C.  Vandewalker,  who  is  so  eminently  well  prepared 
to  be  its  historian.  Miss  Vandewalker  has  had  unusually 
successful  experience  in  grade  and  normal  school  teaching, 


FOREWORD  VII 

in  supervising  both  primary  and  kindergarten  work,  as 
well  as  in  kindergarten  training.  To  this  practical  equip- 
ment Miss  Vandewalker  has  also  added  that  of  the  serious 
scholar.  Her  able  articles  have  appeared  in  our  leading 
scientific  journals,  and  her  just  and  accurate  accounting 
of  both  the  past  history  and  present  tendencies  in  elemen- 
tary education  commands  the  respect  and  admiration  of 
the  entire  teaching  profession. 

A  history  of  the  kindergarten  in  America  cannot  fail 
to  widen  and  deepen  the  public  understanding  of  this 
unique  movement,  to  know  which,  "  root  and  stem,  and 
branch  and  all,"  involves  a  composite  knowledge  of  phi- 
losophies as  old  as  Socrates,  psychologies  as  new  as  yester- 
day, and  the  whole  range  of  habits,  activities,  sentiments, 
and  tendencies  native  to  human  life. 

AMALIE  HOFER. 
Chicago  Commons,  1907. 


PREFACE 

The  kindergarten  is  an  accomplished  fact  in  American 
life  and  education.  That  it  embodies  the  fundamental 
principles  of  child  training,  that  it  has  become  a  part  of 
the  school  system  in  every  progressive  community,  and 
that  its  principles  are  being  increasingly  applied  in  ele- 
mentary education  are  matters  of  common  knowledge. 
If  one  seeks,  however,  for  definite  information  concerning 
the  origin,  growth,  or  present  status  of  the  movement  in 
the  United  States,  he  is  at  a  loss.  Books  treating  of  dif- 
ferent phases  of  kindergarten  theory  or  practice  are  numer- 
ous, it  is  true,  and  articles  have  been  written  describing  the 
origin  and  growth  of  the  movement  in  different  centers ;  but 
the  attempts  thus  far  made  to  summarize  the  movement  as 
a  whole  have  either  been  too  brief  to  give  its  general  scope, 
or  have  been  published  in  a  form  not  readily  obtainable. 
This  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  recognized  need  for  a 
survey  of  kindergarten  progress  in  the  United  States. 

The  articles  that  have  appeared  in  the  kindergarten 
periodicals  from  time  to  time  describing  the  work  in  the 
different  cities  have  played  an  important  part  in  advancing 
the  kindergarten  cause,  and  the  publication  of  the  most 
important  of  these  in  book  form  would  make  a  valuable 
contribution    to    educational    literature.    While    such    a 


X  PREFACE 

collection  would  furnish  many  facts  of  kindergarten  history, 
it  would  fail,  however,  to  give  what  is  equally  needed,  — 
an  insight  into  the  movement  as  a  whole,  and  into  its 
relation  to  other  movements  that  have  shaped  American 
life  and  education.  The  kindergarten  movement,  like 
other  movements,  must  be  seen  in  its  proper  perspective 
before  it  can  be  correctly  estimated.  To  portray  the 
kindergarten  movement  in  its  relation  to  American  educa- 
tion as  a  whole  is  the  difficult  task  which  the  author  has 
attempted  in  this  book.  The  treatment  which  this  calls 
for  must  of  necessity  lack  in  concreteness,  and  therefore 
perhaps  in  interest,  for  the  average  reader  at  least,  but  it 
is  hoped  that  the  limitations  which  the  form  of  treatment 
imposes  may  be  compensated  for  by  the  added  insight 
that  will  be  given  into  the  movement  as  a  whole. 

The  author  recognizes  that  it  may  not  be  the  part  of 
wisdom  to  discuss  movements  whose  full  significance  has 
not  yet  been  revealed,  since  conclusions  now  drawn, 
or  interpretations  now  made,  may  be  valueless  in  the  near 
future.  She  feels,  however,  that  there  is  need  for  a  state- 
ment of  the  movements  that  have  brought  about  the  present 
differences  in  theory  and  practice  among  kindergartners, 
although  the  time  may  not  yet  have  come  to  estimate  them 
correctly.  She  considers  that  the  theory  and  practice 
of  the  kindergarten,  as  well  as  that  of  education  as  a  whole, 
are  being  slowly  evolved,  and  that  no  one  school  of  thought 
alone  will  furnish  it.  Although  an  interpretation  of  cur- 
rent tendencies  may  have  but  a  passing  value,  therefore, 
she  maintains  that  some  statement  of  these  tendencies  is 


PREFACE  XI 

needed  to  make  present  conditions  intelligible,  even  though 
in  the  near  future  a  restatement  may  be  needed. 

The  information  given  in  the  following  pages  has  been 
obtained  from  many  sources.  Among  these  are :  Barnard's 
American  Journal  of  Education;  the  Reports  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Education  and  of  the  National  Educational 
Association;  the  bound  volumes  of  The  Kindergarten 
Magazine  and  The  Kindergarten  Review;  and  Miss 
Anderson's  Kindergarten  Annual.  The  histories  of  edu- 
cation in  the  United  States  by  Boone,  Dexter,  and  Butler, 
as  well  as  Monroe's  "  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Educa- 
tion "  and  Martin's  "  The  Evolution  of  the  Massachu- 
setts School  System "  have  been  freely  consulted,  as 
have  many  other  books  and  periodicals  quoted  in  the 
text.  Talcott  Williams'  article  on  "  The  Kindergarten 
Movement,"  published  in  The  Century;  Susan  E.  Blow's 
"  History  of  the  Kindergarten  in  the  United  States,"  in 
The  Outlook;  and  Hamilton  W.  Mabie's  article  on  "The 
Kindergarten  in  America,"  also  published  in  The  Out- 
look, have  likewise  proved  valuable  and  suggestive. 

Much  information  has  also  been  obtained  from  cor- 
respondence. That  concerning  legislation  authorizing  the 
establishment  of  kindergartens  in  the  different  states  of  the 
Union  has  been  obtained  largely  from  the  Superintendents 
of  Public  Instruction  in  the  different  states.  The  informa- 
tion concerning  the  kindergarten  in  temperance,  welfare, 
and  missionary  work  has  also  been  obtained  largely 
from  correspondence.  The  author  takes  this  occasion  to 
thank  all  those  who  have  rendered  such  assistance. 


Xll  PREFACE 

She  wishes  to  acknowledge  her  special  indebtedness 
to  the  late  Carl  Schurz  and  to  his  daughter,  Miss  Agatha 
Schurz,  for  information  concerning  the  life  of  Mrs.  Schurz, 
and  for  permission  to  use  her  picture ;  to  Mr.  Charles  H. 
Doerflinger  of  Milwaukee  for  the  loan  of  a  complete 
file  of  The  New  Education;  to  Mr.  C.  W.  Bardeen,  of 
Syracuse,  N.Y.,  for  the  loan  of  two  volumes  of  The 
Kindergarten  Messenger  and  other  books  now  out  of  print ; 
and  to  Mr.  Manfred  J.  Holmes,  Secretary  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Scientific  Study  of  Education,  for  permission 
to  use  portions  of  the  article  on  "  The  History  of  Kinder- 
garten Influence  in  Elementary  Education,"  which  ap- 
peared in  the  Sixth  Year  Book  of  that  society.  She  wishes 
to  express  her  thanks  to  Miss  Anna  Webster  Lytle  of  the 
Milwaukee  State  Normal  School ;  to  Dr.  Edward  L. 
Thorndike  and  Dr.  John  A.  MacVannel  of  Teachers 
College;  and  to  Miss  Amalie  Hofer  of  the  Pestalozzi- 
Froebel  Training  School  of  Chicago  for  valuable  sugges- 
tions and  for  reading  the  completed  manuscript. 

NINA   C.    VANDEWALKER. 

Milwaukee  State  Normal  School, 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  December,  1907. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    The  Kindergarten  in  Relation  to  Educational 

Progress i 

II.    The    Period    of    Introduction;    Kindergarten 

Beginnings 12 

III.  Early  Literature 25 

IV.  The   Period   of    Extension  ;   General    Charac- 

teristics         37 

V.    Kindergarten  Associations  and  Women's  Clubs      55 

VI.    The  Kindergarten  in  Church,  Sunday  School, 

AND  Mission  Work 76 

VII.    The  Kindergarten  in  Temperance,  Settlement, 

AND  Welfare  Work 103 

VIII.    The  Kindergarten  and  Educational  Organiza- 
tions AND  Exhibitions 129 

IX.    Progress  in  Kindergarten  Literature       .        .159 

X.    The    Kindergarten     in    the     Public     School 

System 183 

XI.    Kindergarten  Influence  in  Elementary   Edu- 
cation     209 

XII.    New  Tendencies 232 

Appendix 257 

Index 269 

xiii 


THE  KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN 
EDUCATION 


CHAPTER   I 

The   Kindergarten  in  Relation  to   Educational 
Progress 

The  kindergarten  movement  is  one  of  the  most  signifi- 
cant movements  in  American  education.  In  the  fifty  or 
more  years  that  have  passed  since  the  first  kindergarten 
was  opened  in  the  United  States  education  has  been  trans- 
formed, and  the  kindergarten  has  been  one  of  the  agencies 
in  the  transformation.  Although  it  came  to  this  country 
when  the  educational  ideal  was  still  in  the  process  of 
transformation,  its  aims  and  methods  differed  too  radi- 
cally from  the  prevailing  ones  to  meet  with  immediate 
acceptance.  The  kindergarten  is,  however,  the  educa- 
tional expression  of  the  principles  upon  which  American 
institutions  are  based,  and  as  such  it  could  not  but  live 
and  grow  upon  American  soil,  if  not  in  the  school  system, 
then  out  of  it.  Trusting  to  its  inherent  truth  to  win 
recognition  and  influence,  it  started  on  its  educational 
mission  as  an  independent  institution,  the  embodiment  of 
a  new  educational  ideal.  Its  exponents  proclaimed  a  new 
gospel  —  that  of  man  as  a  creative  being,  and  education 

B  1 


2  THE    KINDERGARTEN    IN    AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

as  a  process  of  self-expression.  They  substituted  activity 
for  the  prevailing  repression,  and  insisted  upon  the  child's 
right  to  himself  and  to  happiness  during  the  educational 
process.  They  emphasized  the  importance  of  early  child- 
hood, and  made  the  ideal  mother  the  standard  for  the 
teacher.  They  recognized  the  value  of  beauty  as  a 
factor  in  education,  and  by  means  of  music,  plants,  and 
pictures  in  the  kindergarten  they  revealed  the  barrenness 
of  the  old-time  schoolroom.  By  their  sympathetic  inter- 
pretation of  childhood,  their  exaltation  of  motherhood, 
their  enthusiasm  for  humanity,  and  their  intense  moral 
earnestness  they  carried  conviction  to  the  educational 
world.  The  kindergarten  so  won  its  way  to  the  hearts 
of  the  people  that  the  school  at  last  opened  its  doors  and 
bade  it  welcome.  It  has  become  the  symbol  of  the  new 
education. 

The  acceptance  of  the  kindergarten  in  the  United 
States  has  not  depended  wholly  upon  the  attitude  of  the 
school,  nor  upon  the  recognition  of  its  pedagogical  value. 
The  kindergarten  was  the  outgrowth  of  the  idealistic 
philosophy  which  so  profoundly  influenced  the  world's 
thought  during  the  century  just  closed.  As  the  influence 
of  that  thought  made  itself  felt  in  American  life,  the  thought 
of  the  people  became  receptive  to  the  kindergarten  mes- 
sage. Until  the  conception  of  man  as  spiritual  had  been 
emphasized  in  the  American  pulpit,  the  church  and  Sun- 
day-school would  not  have  been  ready  for  Froebel's  sug- 
gestions concerning  the  child's  spiritual  development. 
Until  the  mission  of  art  to  humanity  had  been  recognized, 


RELATION   TO    EDUCATIONAL   PROGRESS  3 

the  emphasis  which  the  kindergarten  places  upon  beauty 
as  a  factor  in  education  would  not  have  been  understood. 
Until  the  heart  of  America  had  been  stirred  to  a  new 
sense  of  human  brotherhood,  the  significance  of  the  kin- 
dergarten as  an  agency  for  the  salvation  of  neglected 
childhood  would  not  have  been  appreciated.  Until  the 
school  conceived  of  education  as  something  more  funda- 
mental than  instruction  in  the  Three  R's,  the  doctrine  of 
education  by  development  would  not  have  been  selected 
as  the  foundation  for  educational  procedure.  The  prog- 
ress of  the  kindergarten  cannot  be  fully  understood, 
therefore,  without  a  glance  at  the  history  of  American 
thought  during  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Its  progress  in  relation  to  elementary  education  cannot  be 
adequately  comprehended  without  an  acquaintance  with 
certain  significant  facts  in  American  school  history  during 
the  past  fifty  years. 

The  building  up  of  the  American  school  system  has 
been  a  slow  process,  —  one  not  yet  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted. It  began,  not  at  the  bottom,  with  the  work  of 
the  youngest  children,  but  at  the  top.  In  fact,  the  value 
of  early  childhood  for  educational  purposes  was  the  last 
to  be  recognized  and  the  work  of  the  youngest  children 
was  the  last  to  be  provided  for.  The  primary  school  had 
to  win  its  way  into  the  school  system  much  as  the  kinder- 
garten is  now  winning  a  place  there.  For  many  years 
children  were  not  allowed  to  attend  the  "reading  and 
writing  schools"  until  they  were  seven  years  of  age,  and 
even  then  only  on  the  condition  that  they  had  already 


4  THE  KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

learned  to  read.  Even  after  primary  schools  were  estab- 
lished they  were  not  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  school 
system ;  both  in  and  out  of  New  England  —  in  Boston 
until  1854  —  they  were  managed  independently.  It 
was  not  until  about  i860  that  the  present  system  of  grading 
was  established.  A  complete  revolution  in  educational 
thought  was  therefore  necessary  before  the  kindergarten 
could  hope  for  recognition.  Had  Frocbel  himself  come 
to  the  United  States,  as  he  at  one  time  thought  of  doing, 
his  message  would  have  fallen  upon  deaf  ears,  for  until 
the  importance  of  early  childhood  for  educational  pur- 
poses began  to  be  recognized,  the  kindergarten  could  have 
no  meaning.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  the  ten 
kindergartens  opened  in  the  United  States  before  1870  — 
with  one  exception  established  by  educated  Germans  — 
should  have  attracted  relatively  little  attention. 

Before  the  kindergarten  could  hope  for  general  recog- 
nition, however,  other  important  changes  in  educational 
thought  were  necessary.  While  education  was  looked 
upon  as  a  process  of  instruction  in  the  Three  R's  only, 
the  kindergarten  could  hope  for  little  or  no  recognition. 
When  that  conception  gave  way  to  one  of  development, 
the  fundamental  value  of  kindergarten  theory  and  practice 
became  apparent.  Although  the  older  view  has  not  been 
entirely  supplanted  even  yet,  it  was  practically  unques- 
tioned until  after  the  organization  of  the  graded  school 
system  —  until  the  Civil  W' ar.  The  growth  of  the  psy- 
chological conception  of  education  which  in  the  United 
States  began  to  make  itself  felt  at  about  this  time,  was  a 


RELATION  TO  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS        5 

gradual  one  toward  which  many  influences  and  individuals 
contributed;  Probably  no  one  person's  influence  did 
more  in  the  early  years  than  that  of  Dr.  E.  A.  Sheldon, 
the  founder  of  the  Oswego  Normal  School.  Dr.  Sheldon 
had  come  under  the  influence  of  Pestalozzi's  principles 
and  methods  while  superintendent  of  schools  in  Oswego, 
N.Y.,  and  in  1861  he  opened  in  the  city  schools  a  depart- 
ment for  the  training  of  teachers  on  Pestalozzian  prin- 
,  ciples.  That  there  is  a  natural  order  in  the  child's  develop- 
ment and  that  this  order  must  determine  the  character  of 
early  education  was  the  principle  especially  emphasized. 
This  called  for  objective  teaching  and  self-expression  in 
the  early  years,  however,  not  primarily  for  instruction  in 
the  language  arts.  The  work  based  upon  these  principles 
proved  so  successful  that  in  1863  the  little  training  class 
in  the  city  schools  was  organized  into  a  state  normal 
school.  The  success  and  enthusiasm  of  the  graduates  of 
the  Oswego  Normal  School  was  such  that  they  were 
sought  for  in  nearly  every  state  in  the  Union.  With  the 
gradual  acceptance  of  the  new  views  the  kindergarten 
began  to  assume  significance,  and  its  message  no  longer 
fell  on  unheeding  ears. 

The  insight  into  the  psychological  conception  of  edu- 
cation brought  about  by  its  successful  application  at 
Oswego  was  doubtless  one  of  the  causes  for  another 
advance  in  elementary  education  having  an  important 
bearing  upon  kindergarten  progress.  This  was  the  addi- 
tion of  drawing  and  manual  training  to  the  elementary 
curriculum.     The  introduction  of  these  subjects  indicated 


6  THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

a  new  trend  in  education,  —  a  trend  in  the  direction  of 
activity  as  a  principle  in  school  work.  This  principle 
is  basic  in  the  procedure  of  the  kindergarten,  but  until 
the  value  of  activity  for  the  pupils  in  the  grades  began  to 
make  itself  felt  the  message  of  the  kindergarten  was  but 
partially  comprehended.  But  the  adoption  of  this  prin- 
ciple —  the  first  outward  indication  of  which  was  the 
introduction  of  drawing  into  the  schools  of  Boston  in 
1870  —  had  not  come  without  effort,  and  was  the  result 
of  practical  considerations  rather  than  of  pedagogical 
insight.  The  necessity  for  art  instruction  as  a  factor  in 
education  had  been  impressed  upon  England  by  the 
London  Exhibition  of  185 1,  and  the  awakening  of  England 
had  had  its  effect  upon  American  education.  The  value 
of  art  education  had  been  further  emphasized  by  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1867,  and  the  introduction  of  drawing  into 
the  schools  of  Boston  was  the  result.  The  advocates  of  art 
teaching  realized,  however,  that  the  value  and  feasibility 
of  such  teaching  needed  demonstrating  to  the  people  at 
large.  The  opportunity  for  such  a  demonstration  was 
furnished  by  the  Philadelphia  Exposition  of  1876.  The 
exhibit  of  drawing  and  manual  training  work  made  by 
the  Boston  schools  on  that  occasion  was  the  direct  stimulus 
to  the  introduction  of  these  subjects  into  the  schools  of 
the  country.  Competent  authorities  have  declared  the 
addition  of  these  two  subjects,  drawing  and  manual  train- 
ing, to  be  "the  most  notable  educational  advance  of  the 
past  two  decades."  "Throughout  all  the  long  hundred 
years  in  which  they  had  been  building  a  nation^  Americans 


RELATION   TO   EDUCATIONAL   PROGRESS  7 

had  shown  themselves  children  of  utility,  not  of  beauty," 
says  Woodrow  Wilson.  "Everything  they  used  showed 
only  the  plain  unstudied  lines  of  practical  serviceability. 
The  things  to  be  seen  at  Philadelphia,  gathered  from  all 
the  world,  awakened  them  to  a  new  sense  of  form  and 
beauty.  Men  knew  afterward  that  that  had  been  the 
dawn  of  an  artistic  renaissance  in  America,  which  was 
to  put  her  architects  and  artists  alongside  the  modern 
masters  of  beauty,  and  redeem  the  life  of  the  people  from 
its  ugly  severity." 

The  recognition  awarded  at  the  Philadelphia  Exposition 
to  the  lines  of  work  upon  which  the  kindergarten  had  from 
the  beginning  placed  the  greatest  stress,  brought  that 
institution  a  recognition  not  accorded  it  before,  and 
another  step  was  taken  in  the  preparation  for  its  general 
acceptance.  The  friends  of  the  kindergarten  were  not 
satisfied,  however,  with  a  recognition  of  its  principles  alone. 
They  felt  that  the  institution  as  such  had  a  mission  in 
American  life  and  education,  and  had  seen  in  the  Exposi- 
tion the  opportunity  for  presenting  its  message  to  the 
American  people.  A  model  kindergarten  on  the  Expo- 
sition grounds  had  been  arranged  for,  which  was  carried 
on  for  the  entire  time  that  the  Exposition  was  in  progress. 
The  message  it  had  to  offer  was  heard  and  understood, 
and  from  that  time  on  its  acceptance  was  assured. 

For  the  two  decades  following  the  Philadelphia  Expo- 
sition the  main  lines  of  educational  advance  were  the 
introduction  of  courses  in  drawing  and  manual  training 
into  the  schools  of  the  country,  and  the  incorporation  of  the 


8  THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

kindergarten  into  the  school  system.  The  kindergarten 
did  not  always  yield  the  results  for  grade  work  that  its 
friends  anticipated,  however,  since  the  aims  of  the  kinder- 
garten and  those  of  the  school  lacked  unity  of  purpose. 
The  attempted  application  of  kindergarten  principles  to 
the  higher  grades  was  frequently  disappointing  for  the 
same  reason.  The  new  studies  too  —  drawing,  manual 
training,  and  nature  study  —  were  often  merely  additions 
to  the  curriculum,  without  an  insight  into  their  real  pur- 
pose and  value  or  their  relation  to  the  traditional  studies. 
For  this,  and  other  reasons  too  complex  for  discussion 
here,  the  need  of  a  more  fundamental  educational  theory 
began  to  be  felt.  The  response  to  this  need  was  the  "new 
psychology"  —  the  psychology  of  James,  Hall,  and 
others  —  which  began  to  make  itself  felt  during  the  last 
decade  of  the  century.  The  new  psychology,  of  which 
the  child  study  movement  was  the  natural  outgrowth, 
had  a  most  important  bearing  upon  kindergarten  progress. 
The  nature  of  its  bearing  upon  that  progress  must  be 
reserved  for  a  later  chapter.  Suffice  it  to  say  in  passing, 
however,  that  the  new  psychology  set  the  seal  of  its  approval 
upon  the  main  features  of  kindergarten  procedure  and 
upon  the  application  of  its  principles  to  grade  work. 
To  many  it  gave  their  first  insight  into  the  aims  and  pur- 
poses of  the  kindergarten ;  to  others  it  reinterpreted  the 
Froebelian  doctrines  and  gave  them  a  broader  significance. 
The  new  psychology  therefore  prepared  the  way  for  an 
appreciation  of  the  kindergarten  and  of  the  other  move- 
ments in  education  that  would  have  been  impossible  before. 


RELATION  TO   EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  9 

An  acquaintance  with  the  general  progress  of  American 
thought  thus  briefly  outlined  will  serve  as  a  background 
against  which  the  progress  of  the  kindergarten  may  be 
seen  in  clear  relief.  A  new  conception  of  education  was 
necessary  before  the  significance  of  the  kindergarten  could 
be  comprehended,  but  this  alone  would  not  have  accorded 
it  the  place  it  now  holds  in  popular  esteem.  A  new 
Christianity  too  was  needed,  no  less  than  a  new  ethics, 
and  a  new  insight  into  the  mission  of  art.  The  "new 
theology  "  no  less  than  the  ''new  psychology"  has  played 
a  part  in  advancing  kindergarten  progress.  The  social 
reformer  doubtless  proclaimed  the  message  of  Froebel 
as  effectively  as  did  the  educational  expert.  Visions  of  a 
new  theology,  a  new  ethics,  a  new  art,  and  a  new  educa- 
tion began  to  dawn  upon  the  American  people  during  the 
years  immediately  following  the  Civil  War.  The  struggle 
for  the  realization  of  the  new  ideals  characterized  the  last 
two  decades  of  the  century.  From  the  standpoint  of  kin- 
dergarten progress  the  first  of  these  periods  —  from  the 
opening  of  the  first  kindergarten  in  1855  until  after  the 
Philadelphia  Exposition  —  may  appropriately  be  called 
the  Period  of  Introduction;  the  second  the  Period  of 
Extension.  The  first  period  divides  itself  naturally  into 
the  period  of  the  German  kindergarten,  —  from  1855  to 
about  ^870,  —  and  the  period  from  1870  to  1880  or  there- 
abouts when  the  kindergarten  was  accepted  by  Americans 
as  an  institution  adapted  to  American  conditions  and 
American  needs.  The  period  of  extension  falls  likewise 
into  two  subdivisions.     During  the  first  of  these  —  from 


10        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

1880  to  1890  —  the  kindergarten  was  accepted  with 
relatively  little  question ;  during  the  second  —  from  1890 
until  the  present  time  —  a  more  critical  attitude  has  set 
in,  and  a  reconstruction  of  its  theory  and  practice  is  de- 
manded. The  dates  given  are  general  and  approximate 
only,  as  the  movement  has  differed  radically  in  its  origin 
and  progress  in  different  localities.  There  are  many 
sections  of  the  country  where  the  period  of  introduction 
is  still  to  be  entered  upon;  there  are  others  where  the 
kindergarten  is  known  and  theoretically  appreciated,  but 
where  its  extension  into  the  school  system  has  not  yet  been 
effected ;  there  are  others  still  —  not  infrequently  kinder- 
garten strongholds  —  where  no  evidence  appears  that 
the  criticisms  made  upon  its  procedure  during  the  past 
ten  years  have  been  heard  or  heeded.  These  differences 
are  not  surprising.  Where  the  movement  has  been  pri- 
marily philanthropic,  where  it  has  come  into  no  contact 
with  progressive  school  work  and  educational  leaders,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  the  older  views  should  obtain. 
Where  the  work  brings  the  kindergartner  into  a  constant 
association  with  those  of  larger  outlook,  it  would  be  little 
to  her  credit  if  the  newer  views  did  not  prevail.  The  peri- 
ods outlined  are  intended  to  serve  as  a  framework  against 
which  the  progress  of  the  kindergarten  may  be  seen  in 
its  relation  to  the  progress  of  elementary  education  as  a 
whole. 

It  is  too  early  for  a  complete  history  of  the  kindergarten 
movement,  but  the  general  demand  for  information  upon 
the  subject,  more  comprehensive  and  available  than  the 


RELATION  TO  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS       II 

magazine  articles  or  summaries  in  the  Report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Education,  which  have  heretofore  been  the 
main  sources  of  knowledge,  has  led  to  this  brief  statement 
of  the  main  facts  of  kindergarten  history.  It  is  intended 
primarily  for  the  younger  kindergartners,  to  whom  an 
acquaintance  with  the  movement  with  which  they  are 
allied  is  essential  to  intelligent  effort.  It  aims  also  to 
acquaint  the  younger  school  men  of  the  country  with  one 
of  the  vitalizing  influences  in  American  education  during 
the  past  quarter  century,  and  to  lead  them  to  a  study  of 
the  Froebelian  philosophy.  If  it  succeeds  in  showing 
them  the  reasons  for  the  differences  that  prevail  among 
kindergartners  at  the  present  time,  and  in  securing  their 
cooperation  in  the  problem  of  adjusting  the  kindergarten 
to  the  school,  it  will  have  rendered  a  needed  service. 


CHAPTER   II 

The  Period  of  Introduction;   Kindergarten 
Beginnings 

The  first  kindergarten  in  the  United  States  is  popularly 
supposed  to  have  been  the  one  opened  in  Boston  in  i860 
by  Miss  Elizabeth  Peabody,  but  the  real  beginning  of  the 
movement  must  be  placed  several  years  earlier  and  ascribed 
to  a  different  source.  The  European  Revolution  of  1848 
brought  to  the  United  States  many  Germans  of  culture 
and  influence,  who  during  the  decade  between  1850  and 
i860  established  private  schools,  bilingual  in  character, 
in  all  the  larger  cities  in  which  their  countrymen  had 
settled,  —  New  York  City,  Hoboken,  Detroit,  Milwaukee, 
Louisville,  and  several  others.  It  was  in  these  schools, 
based  upon  the  principles  of  the  new  education,  which 
at  that  time  had  found  little  or  no  recognition  in  the  United 
States,  that  the  kindergarten  in  the  United  States  had  its 
real  origin.  Although  these  schools  did  not  attract  from 
American  educators  the  attention  which  their  excellence 
deserved,  and  hardly  a  mention  can  be  found  of  the  kinder- 
gartens that  most  of  them  contained,  their  indirect  influence 
in  behalf  of  the  new  education  in  general  and  of  the  kinder- 
garten in  particular  was  considerable.  The  whole  kinder- 
garten movement  in  Wisconsin  can  be  traced  to  the  efforts 

12 


PERIOD   OF   INTRODUCTION;     BEGINNINGS  I3 

made  in  its  behalf  by  those  in  charge  of  the  German- 
English  Academy  of  Milwaukee,  —  an  institution  of  the 
kind  in  question,  and  this  is  not  an  isolated  instance. 
The  German-English  Academy  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  and 
that  at  Detroit,  Mich.,  as  well  as  the  institution  in  Newark, 
N.J.,  of  which  Dr.  Adolph  Douai  was  principal,  did  ef- 
fective service  in  promoting  the  spread  of  the  new  insti- 
tution. Although  several  of  the  earliest  kindergartens 
were  private  and  independent,  the  impulse  that  led  to  their 
organization  came  from  the  same  general  source.  With 
the  single  exception  of  Miss  Peabody's,  the  ten  kinder- 
gartens established  in  the  United  States  before  1870  all 
owed  their  origin  to  the  movement  in  question.  The  first 
kindergarten  in  the  United  States  was  one  in  the  home  of 
Mrs.  Carl  Schurz,  in  Watertown,  Wis.,  in  1855.  The 
second  was  that  opened  by  Miss  Caroline  Louise  Frank- 
enburg  in  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  1858.  As  far  as  can  be 
learned,  the  first  of  the  German-English  institutions  to 
adopt  the  kindergarten  was  Dr.  Douai's  school,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made.  The  kindergarten 
became  a  part  of  that  institution  in  1^861.  A  kindergarten 
was  opened  in  Hoboken,  N.J.,  at  about  the  same  time, 
and  three  years  later  two  were  opened  in  New  York  City. 
One  was  opened  in  West  Newton,  Mass.,  in  1864  by  Mrs. 
Louise  Pollock.  The  inspiration  of  the  kindergarten 
ideal  came  to  Dr.  William  N,  Hailman  in  i860,  during  a 
visit  to  the  schools  of  Zurich,  Switzerland,  and  in  1865 
he  added  a  kindergarten  to  the  German-English  Academy 
of  Louisville,  Ky.,  of  which  he  was  president.     It  was  in 


14        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

this  kindergarten  that  Mrs.  Eudora  L.  Hailman  found  the 
inspiration  to  her  life  work,  and  that  she  and  her  husband 
began  their  thirty  years  of  united  service  to  the  kinder- 
garten cause.  The  German-EngHsh  Academy  of  Detroit 
adopted  the  kindergarten  in  1869,  and  in  1873  organized 
effort  in  its  behalf  was  undertaken  by  the  German-English 
Academy  of  Milwaukee.  There  is  little  record  of  the 
effort  made  by  these  institutions  or  by  the  private  kinder- 
gartens thus  established  to  influence  existing  educational 
procedure,  but  the  indications  are  that  such  influence  was 
much  more  widespread  than  has  been  supposed. 

The  efforts  made  in  behalf  of  the  kindergarten  by  Dr. 
Henry  Barnard  and  Miss  Elizabeth  Peabody  are  fairly 
familiar  to  the  educational  public,  but  the  relation  between 
these  efforts  and  those  of  the  German  exponents  of  the 
kindergarten  has  never  been  adequately  shown.  Dr. 
Barnard  visited  England  in  1854  as  a  delegate  to  the 
International  Exhibit  of  Educational  Systems  and  Ma- 
terials, and  while  there  became  deeply  interested  in  the 
kindergarten.  English  interest  in  the  doctrines  of  Froebel 
had  been  awakened  in  1854  by  the  lectures  of  the  Baroness 
von  Marenholz-Buelow,  Froebel's  foremost  disciple,  and 
by  the  practical  work  of  Madam  Bertha  Ronge,  who  had 
been  a  pupil  of  Froebel  and  an  active  worker  in  the  kinder- 
garten cause  in  her  native  city  of  Hamburg.  With  Madam 
Ronge  had  been  associated  her  sister.  Miss  Margaretha 
Meyer,  also  a  pupil  of  Froebel.  Dr.  Barnard  made  a 
report  of  the  educational  exhibition  in  general  and  of  the 
kindergarten  in  particular  to  the  governor  of  Connecticut 


PERIOD  OF  introduction;   beginnings  15 

upon  his  return.  He  also  described  the  exhibit  of  kinder- 
garten materials  in  an  article  in  the  American  Journal 
of  Education,  of  which  he  was  the  editor.  The  report  in 
question  and  the  article,  published  in  1856,  were,  as  far 
as  known,  the  first  articles  concerning  the  kindergarten 
to  appear  in  print  in  the  United  States.  Between  the 
time  of  Dr.  Barnard's  London  visit  and  the  publication  of 
the  articles,  however,  the  kindergarten  itself  had  appeared 
upon  American  soil.  Miss  Meyer  had  become  the  wife 
of  Carl  Schurz,  and  had  come  to  the  United  States,  settling 
in  Watertown,  Wis.  In  order  to  give  her  own  children  | 
the  advantages  of  kindergarten  training  she  gathered 
together  the  children  of  relatives  who  lived  near,  and 
taught  them  the  kindergarten  songs,  games,  and  occupa- 
tions in  true  Froebelian  fashion.  This  was,  as  has  been 
stated,  the  first  kindergarten  in  the  United  States, 

Dr.  Barnard's  report  concerning  the  kindergarten  had 
awakened  the  interest  of  Miss  Elizabeth  Palmer  Peabody,  ^ 
who  is  usually  considered  the  apostle  of  the  kindergar- 
ten movement  in  the  United  States.  The  interest  thus 
awakened  was  deepened  by  an  article  which  appeared  in 
the  Christian  Examiner  in  1859.  This  article,  written 
by  Mrs.  Edna  D.  Cheney  and  Miss  Anna  Q.  T.  Parsons, 
was  a  description  of  the  kindergartens  of  Germany  and  a 
summary  of  Froebel's  principles  as  stated  by  the  Baroness 
von  Buelow.  Miss  Peabody  at  once  undertook  the  study 
of  Froebel,  and  a  chance  meeting  with  Mrs.  Schurz  during 
a  visit  of  the  latter  to  Boston  in  the  winter  of  1859  fanned 
her  interest  into  a  flame  of  enthusiasm.     Having  gained 


1(5        THE  KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

from  Mrs.  Schurz  an  insight  into  the  practical  details 
of  conducting  a  kindergarten,  she  opened  the  kindergarten 
associated  with  her  name  the  following  year.  "Miss 
Peabody  had  participated  in  the  great  social,  literary, 
religious,  and  philosophical  movement  somewhat  vaguely 
described  as  New  England  Transcendentalism,"  says 
Miss  Blow,  "and  was  peculiarly  fitted  both  by  natural 
endowment  and  experience  to  enter  into  the  thought  of 
Froebel."  She  was  at  this  time  fifty-five  years  of  age, 
and  in  the  full  maturity  of  her  powers.  As  sister-in-law 
of  Horace  Mann  she  had  come  into  vital  contact  with  the 
great  educational  movement  identified  with  his  name. 
She  was  a  close  friend  of  Bronson  Alcott,  in  whose  uniqua 
educational  experiment  she  had  shared.  She  had  taught 
for  years  also  in  another  private  school  of  considerable 
note.  That  she  gradually  realized  from  the  inadequacy 
of  her  results  that  the  philosophy  of  Froebel  needed  a 
deeper  study  than  she  had  given  it;  that  she  went  to 
Europe  in  1867  for  the  additional  study  which  she  con- 
sidered necessary;  and  that  she  devoted  the  remaining 
years  of  her  active  life  to  the  advancement  of  the  kinder- 
garten cause  by  teaching,  writing,  and  lecturing,  are  facts 
well  known  to  the  student  of  educational  history. 

The  significance  for  elementary  education  of  the  decade 
from  1 870-1 880  has  already  been  commented  upon.  It 
was  a  significant  decade  for  the  kindergarten  movement 
also,  not  alone  because  influences  favorable  to  the  kinder- 
garten were  set  into  operation  at  that  time,  but  for  other 
reasons  as  well.     One  of  the  indications  of  advance  in  the 


PERIOD  OF  introduction;    beginnings  17 

kindergarten  movement  was  the  establishment  of  kinder- 
garten training  schools,  the  first  of  which  was  opened  in 
Boston  in  1868  by  Madame  Matilde  Kriege  and  her 
daughter.  These  ladies  were  pupils  of  the  Baroness  von 
Marenholz-Buelow,  who  had  been  induced  to  come  to 
Boston  by  Miss  Peabody.  In  1872,  Miss  Henrietta  B. 
Haines,  the  principal  of  a  large  private  school  in  New  York 
City,  invited  ]Miss  Maria  Boelte  to  open  a  kindergarten 
in  her  school.  Miss  Boelte  was  a  pupil  of  Froebel's 
widow,  who  had  achieved  marked  success  both  in  England 
and  in  Germany.  Her  work  in  New  York  attracted 
riiuch  favorable  attention.  At  the  close  of  the  year  Miss 
Boelte  married  Professor  John  Kraus,  already  an  exponent 
of  the  kindergarten,  and  together  they  established  a 
kindergarten  training  school  which  is  still  in  existence, 
although  it  has  been  carried  on  by  Madame  Kraus-Boelte 
alone  since  Professor  Kraus's  death  in  1896.  As  trained 
kindergartners  were  thus  becoming  available,  kinder- 
gartens multiplied  rapidly.  The  kindergarten  found  a 
foothold  in  Washington,  D.C.,  in  1870  through  the  efforts 
of  Mrs.  Susan  Pollock,  and  its  influence  was  strengthened 
in  1872  by  the  establishment  of  a  training  school  under 
Miss  Emma  Marwedel.  In  1873  several  German 
kindergartens  were  established  in  Milwaukee,  through 
the  agency  of  the  German-English  Academy  of  that  city, 
and  when  the  following  year  Professor  W.  N.  Hailman 
succeeded  to  the  presidency  of  that  institution,  kindergarten 
training  was  instituted  also.  The  year  1873  saw  the 
beginning  of  the  kindergarten  training  movement  in  St. 
c 


1 8        THE    KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

Louis,  under  the  leadership  of  Miss  Susan  E.  Blow,  and 
the  following  year  saw  the  beginnings  of  the  movement 
in  Chicago,  under  the  leadership  of  Mrs.  Alice  H.  Putnam. 
In  1875  kindergartens  were  opened  in  Indianapolis  and 
in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  and  in  1876  in  Denver  and  San 
Francisco,  as  a  result  of  a  lecturing  tour  by  Dr.  Felix 
Adler,  who  espoused  the  kindergarten  cause  almost  from 
the  beginning.  The  Philadelphia  Exposition  acquainted 
the  Quaker  City  with  the  new  institution,  and  when  the 
Exposition  closed.  Miss  Ruth  Burritt,  the  "Centennial 
kindergartner,"  remained  in  Philadelphia  to  open  a  kinder- 
garten and  a  kindergarten  training  school.  The  kinder- 
garten spread  rapidly  during  the  latter  part  of  the  decade, 
the  result  in  part  of  the  larger  acquaintance  with  it  for 
which  the  Philadelphia  Exposition  had  furnished  the 
opportunity.  The  friends  of  the  kindergarten  had  recog- 
nized the  opportunity  which  the  Exposition  would  afford, 
and  had  planned  accordingly.  The  Exposition  kinder- 
garten was  conducted  in  an  annex  to  the  Woman's  Pavilion, 
by  Miss  Ruth  Burritt  of  Wisconsin,  who  had  had  several 
years  of  experience  as  a  primary  teacher  before  she  became 
a  kindergartner,  and  whose  manner  and  insight  were  such 
as  to  gain  adherents  for  the  new  cause.  The  enclosure 
for  visitors  was  always  crowded,  many  of  the  on-lookers 
being  "hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water,  who  were 
attracted  by  the  sweet  singing  and  were  spellbound  by 
the  lovely  spectacle."  Thousands  thronged  to  see  the 
new  educational  departure,  and  many  remained  hours 
afterwards   to   ask   questions.     The   Exposition   marked 


PERIOD   OF   introduction;     BEGINNINGS  1 9 

an  epoch  in  the  advancement  of  the  kindergarten  move- 
ment, as  it  marked  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  elementary 
education. 

The  ready  acceptance  of  the  kindergarten  after  the 
Philadelphia  Exposition  did  not  imply  a  recognition  of  its 
pedagogical  value  alone ;  in  fact  it  is  worthy  of  note  that 
many  of  the  kindergartens  established  at  this  period  were 
philanthropic  in  their  ultimate  purpose.  As  the  rapid 
growth  of  cities  and  the  increasing  immigration  was  fast 
developing  the  slum  with  its  attendant  evils,  people  were 
beginning  to  realize  that  some  antidote  must  be  found. 
The  value  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  child-saving  agency 
was  at'  once  recognized,  and  churches  and  philanthropic 
societies  took  up  the  movement.  The  first  charity  kinder- 
garten was  opened  in  1870  in  the  village  of  College  Point, 
N.Y. ;  others  were  opened  the  same  year  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  and  Florence,  Mass.  In  speaking  of.  this  phase 
of  kindergarten  work  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner 
0^  Education,  Miss  Laura  Fisher  says :  — 

"Centering  among,  and  concerning  itself  with,  the 
children  of  the  poor,  and  having  for  its  aim  the  elevation 
of  the  home,  it  was  natural  that  the  kindergarten  as  a 
philanthropic  movement  should  win  great  and  early 
favor.  The  mere  fact  that  the  children  of  the  slums  were 
kept  off  the  streets,  and  that  they  were  made  clean  and 
happy  by  kind  and  motherly  young  women;  that  the 
child  thus  being  cared  for  enabled  the  mother  to  go  about 
her  work  in  or  outside  the  home  —  all  this  appealed  to  the 
heart  of  America,  and  America  gave  freely  to  make  these 


20        THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

kindergartens  possible.  Churches  established  kinder- 
gartens, individuals  endowed  kindergartens,  and  associa- 
tions were  organized  for  the  spread  and  support  of  kinder- 
gartens in  nearly  every  large  city." 

The  fact  that  kindergartens  could  be  carried  on  success- 
fully under  public  school  conditions  was  satisfactorily 
demonstrated  by  the  experiment  made  in  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
by  Superintendent  William  T.  Harris  and  Miss  Susan  E. 
Blow.  But  for  this  experiment  the  general  introduction 
of  the  kindergarten  into  the  schools  of  the  country  — 
accomplished  in  large  part  during  the  following  period  — 
might  have  been  postponed  for  many  years.  Dr.  Harris 
was  at  this  time  acknowledged  as  the  leading  exponent 
of  the  idealistic  philosophy  in  the  United  States,  and  as 
such  he  had  actively  espoused  the  kindergarten  cause. 
Miss  Blow  was  a  native  of  St.  Louis  who  had  taken  a 
course  of  kindergarten  training  in  Miss  Boelte's  school. 
Superintendent  Harris  had  recommended  the  adoption 
of  the  kindergarten  as  a  part  of  the  school  system  to  the 
St.  Louis  school  board  in  1870,  but  the  first  step  in  that 
direction  was  taken  in  1873,  when  Miss  Blow  offered  to 
superintend  a  kindergarten  and  instruct  a  teacher  gratui- 
tously, if  the  board  would  provide  the  teacher,  the  room, 
and  suitable  equipment.  The  offer  was  accepted,  and 
the  kindergarten  was  so  successful  that  additional  ones 
were  soon  called  for.  A  training  school  was  organized, 
as  Miss  Blow  preferred  to  train  her  own  co-workers,  and 
new  kindergartens  were  opened  as  fast  as  kindergartners 
could  be  trained.     The  success  of  the  experiment  made 


PERIOD  OF  introduction;     beginnings  21 

St.  Louis  the  center  of  interest  among  school  men,  and 
educators  from  all  parts  of  the  country  coming  to  visit, 
the  stimulus  was  carried  to  their  respective  cities.  Dr. 
Harris  severed  his  connection  with  the  St.  Louis  schools 
in  1880  and  Miss  Blow  withdrew  from  the  work  that  she 
had  so  successfully  inaugurated  in  1884,  but  by  that  time 
the  practical  value  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  part  of  the 
school  system  had  been  demonstrated  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  educational  public. 

The  friends  of  the  kindergarten  movement  in  Wisconsin 
looked  even  farther  than  the  introduction  of  the  kinder- 
garten into  the  public  schools.  They  wished  to  secure 
its  adoption  by  the  normal  school  system  of  the  state, 
and  to  provide  for  the  training  of  kindergartners  at  state 
expense.  Because  of  the  many  German  residents  of  the 
state  who  had  brought  an  acquaintance  with  the  kinder- 
garten from  the  land  of  their  birth,  the  movement  in 
Wisconsin  had  made  considerable  headway  before  it 
came  into  contact  with  the  movement  as  it  had  developed 
in  other  sections  of  the  country.  In  1870  a  vigorous 
campaign  had  been  undertaken  in  Milwaukee  which  had 
resulted  in  1873  in  the  organization  of  kindergartens  in 
the  four  German-English  institutions  of  that  city.  Pro- 
fessor William  N.  Mailman's  acceptance  of  the  presidency 
of  one  of  these  institutions  in  1874  had  not  only  strength- 
ened the  kindergarten  sentiment  among  the  German- 
speaking  people,  but  had  also  brought  it  to  the  attention 
of  the  English-speaking  people  of  the  city  and  state. 
The  first  English  kindergarten  in  Milwaukee  was  organ- 


22        THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

ized  by  Mrs.  Hailman,  and  training  classes  were  under- 
taken in  both  languages.  A  campaign  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  kindergarten  into  the  schools  of  Milwaukee 
and  into  the  normal  school  system  of  the  state  was  under- 
taken. The  second  of  these  objects  was  accomplished 
during  the  decade  under  consideration,  and  the  first  soon 
after  the  opening  of  the  following  one.  A  kindergarten 
was  opened  in  the  State  Normal  School  at  Oshkosh  in  the 
spring  of  1880,  —  "  the  first  kindergarten  officially  and 
directly  connected  with  any  state  normal  school  in  the 
United  States."  A  similar  movement  had  been  under- 
taken in  Minnesota,  and  a  few  months  later  a  kinder- 
garten department  was  also  opened  in  the  State  Normal 
School  of  Winona. 

The  organization  of  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion in  1872  had  afforded  another  means  of  stitnulating 
interest  in  the  kindergarten  on  the  part  of  school  men. 
At  the  first  meeting  Professor  Hailman,  then  of  Louisville, 
Ky.,  had  presented  a  paper  on  "The  Adaptation  of 
Froebel's  System  of  Education  to  American  Institutions," 
and  urged  the  appointment  of  a  committee  to  examine 
the  system.  The  committee,  consisting  of  Professor  John 
Kraus,  John  Hancock,  Dr.  Adolph  Douai,  William  T. 
Harris,  George  A.  Baker,  J.  W.  Dickinson,  and  William 
N.  Hailman,  made  a  most  favorable  report  the  following 
year,  and  the  impression  made  by  the  report  was  strength- 
ened by  a  paper  read  before  the  Association  by  Mrs. 
Kraus-Boelte.  In  the  years  immediately  following,  the 
cause  of  the  kindergarten  was  kept  before  the  Association 


PERIOD  OF  introduction;   beginnings  23 

by  Mrs.  Kraus-Boelte,  Dr.  Harris,  and  Professor  Hail- 
man. 

At  the  end  of  the  decade  the  friends  of  the  kindergarten 
had  abundant  reasons  to  rejoice  at  the  progress  of  the 
cause.  In  1^870  there_W-ere  less  than  a  dozen  kindergartens 
in  existence,  all  save  one  established  by  Germans  and 
conducted  in  the  German  language;  in  1880  there  were 
not  less  than  four  hundred  scattered  over  thirty  states. 
In  1870  there  was  one  kindergarten  training  school  in  the 
United  States;  in  1880  such  schools  had  been  established 
in  the  ten  largest  cities  of  the  country  and  in  many  smaller 
ones.  The  year  1870  saw  the  establishment  of  the  first 
charity  kindergarten;  in  1880  the  new  institution  had 
become  recognized  as  the  most  valuable  of  child-saving 
agencies,  and  mission  kindergarten  work  had  become  so 
popular  among  wealthy  young  women  as  to  be  almost  a 
fad.  The  practicability  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  part  of 
the  school  system  had  been  successfully  demonstrated, 
and  the  logical  sequence  of  its  future  relation  to  the  school 
had  been  recognized  by  the  establishment  of  kindergarten 
training  departments  in  the  normal  school  systems  of  two 
great  states.  The  National  Educational  Association 
had  set  the  seal  of  its  approval  upon  the  principles  which 
the  kindergarten  embodied,  and  had  commended  the 
institution  to  the  school  men  of  the  country  for  experiment 
and  consideration.  "The  lessons  of  the  Philadelphia 
Exposition,  at  which  the  meaning  of  the  art  and  industrial 
elements  in  education  was  first  revealed  to  the  American 
teachers,"  had  been  taken  to  heart,  and  the  result  of  the 


24        THE  KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

awakening  it  had  occasioned  had  been  the  attempted 
enrichment  of  the  elementary  curriculum  by  the  addition 
of  the  subjects  frequently  termed  "fads," — music, 
drawing,  manual  training,  nature  study,  and  physical 
culture.  The  fact  that  these  subjects  constituted  an 
organic  part  of  the  kindergarten  awakened  an  interest 
in  that  institution  on  the  part  of  many  who  had  thus  far 
given  it  but  little  attention.  They  began  to  see  in  the 
kindergarten  games  the  true  beginning  for  the  child's 
physical  development ;  in  its  gift  and  occupation  exercises 
the  foundation  for  art  and  manual  training  work;  and 
in  its  garden  work  and  nature  excursions  the  foundation 
for  a  true  knowledge  of  nature.  The  significance  of  the 
kindergarten  as  the  logical  foundation  for  a  new  system 
of  education  had  therefore  begun  to  dawn,  and  the  com- 
prehensiveness of  the  Froebelian  philosophy  stood  out  in 
striking  contrast  to  the  meagerness  of  the  educational 
theory  which  then  prevailed.  The  period  of  its  apprentice- 
ship was  therefore  over.  Its  advocates  could  silence  doubt 
and  criticism  by  pointing  to  results  already  achieved, 
and  could  urge  its  extension  with  the  faith  and  enthusiasm 
born  of  the  assurance  that  it  met  a  recognized  need  in 
American  life  and  education. 


CHAPTER   III 

The  Period  of  Introduction;   Early  Literature 

The  present  familiarity  with  the  spirit  and  method 
of  the  new  education  makes  it  difficult  to  comprehend 
the  curiosity  with  which  the  first  kindergartens  were 
regarded  and  the  difficulty  that  people  experienced  in 
understanding  its  philosophy.  Even  a  slight  acquaintance 
with  the  views  generally  held  a  generation  ago  will  show 
that  the  difference  between  the  views  of  life  of  the  twentieth 
century  and  those  of  the  period  of  the  Civil  War  is  world- 
wide. The  idealistic  philosophy,  of  which  the  kinder- 
garten is  the  expression,  considers  the  universe  funda- 
mentally spiritual,  and  nature  and  humanity  as  but  varying 
expressions  of  the  World-Spirit,  —  God.  Man  is  therefore 
in  essence  good,  and  education  is  a  natural  process  of 
unfolding  his  spiritual  capacities,  in  accordance  with  the 
universal  laws  of  evolution.  This  doctrine  has  permeated 
every  phase  of  the  world's  thinking  during  the  past  quarter 
century,  and  no  longer  seems  strange  and  unfamiliar; 
but  at  the  time  in  question  there  had  been  little  to  familiar- 
ize the  American  people  with  such  views.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising, therefore,  that  the  kindergarten  which  embodied 
them  should  have  appealed  most  strongly  to  the  highly 
educated  and  the  spiritually  minded  in  the  early  days, 

25 


26        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

and  that  its  American  sponsors  should  have  been  the  Nev} 
England  Transcendentalists,  —  the  American  exponents 
of  German  idealism.  The  acceptance  of  the  idealistic 
interpretation  of  the  universe,  reinforced  later  by  the 
doctrine  of  evolution,  then  hardly  yet  formulated,  and  the 
new  interpretation  of  Christianity  in  terms  of  social  value, 
—  these  have  given  to  the  life  and  education  of  the  present 
generation  a  depth  and  a  significance  that  it  lacked  a 
generation  ago. 

The  few,  therefore,  caught  the  real  significance  of  the 
new  institution  in  the  early  years;  the  many  saw,  and 
comprehended  but  in  part.  Education  in  a  guise  so 
different  from  that  which  she  had  hitherto  worn  was 
practically  unrecognizable.  Visitors  came,  —  too  many 
for  the  well-being  of  the  children  or  the  comfort  of  the 
kindergartner ;  but,  aflame  with  the  enthusiasm  of  a  new 
insight,  she  bade  them  welcome,  hoping  to  gain  new  con- 
verts to  her  educational  faith.  The  kindergartner  of 
to-day,  beginning  work  in  a  new  locality,  encounters  few 
of  these  difficulties.  She  deepens  the  interest  of  the  in- 
quiring or  silences  the  doubts  of  the  skeptics  by  referring 
them  to  Froebel  or  his  many  interpreters,  or  by  pointing 
to  the  results  the  kindergarten  has  accomplished  in  other 
localities.  The  kindergartner  of  the  early  day  had  no 
such  resources.  She  must  be,  perforce,  the  priestess  of 
the  new  cult,  for  available  literature  there  was  practically 
none.  Froebel  and  his  European  exponents  were  hidden 
from  the  majority  in  the  fastnesses  of  a  foreign  language. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  translation  of  kinder- 


PERIOD  OF  introduction;  early  literature     27 

garten  literature  should  have  been  thought  imperative, 
and  that  the  spread  of  that  literature  should  have  been 
considered  an  essential  part  of  the  movement.  Had  not 
the  philosophy  of  Froebel  contained  fundamental  truth 
it  could  never  have  kindled  the  enthusiasm  needed  to  over- 
come the  almost  unsurmountable  obstacles.  The  lit- 
erature of  the  kindergarten,  containing  as  it  does  the  new 
philosophy  of  education  in  a  nutshell,  has  been  a  sig- 
nificant factor  in  shaping  educational  ideals,  and  no  study 
of  the  movement  can  be  considered  complete  that  does 
not  include  a  resume  of  its  development. 

The  beginnings  were  insignificant  enough.  The  brief 
mention  of  the  kindergarten  in  the  Journal  of  Education 
in  1856  and  1858,  and  the  admirable  exposition  that  had 
appeared  in  the  Christian  Examiner  in  1859,  had,  as  has 
been  stated,  acquainted  a  few  people  with  the  existence 
of  the  new  institution.  Charles  Dickens,  the  first  great 
English  student  of  the  kindergarten,  had  written  for 
Household  Words  in  1855  an  article  on  "Infant  Gardens," 
as  kindergartens  were  called  when  first  introduced  into 
England.  This  article  was  written  for  the  purpose  of 
calling  attention  to  the  work  of  the  Baroness  von  Maren- 
holz-Buelow,  who  had  come  to  England  the  year  before 
to  introduce  the  kindergarten  system.  "This  article 
must  always  take  a  front  rank  as  a  strikingly  clear,  com- 
prehensive, and  sympathetic  exposition  of  the  principles 
and  processes  of  the  kindergarten,"  says  Professor  James 
L.  Hughes.  The  Baroness  herself  had  written  a  pamphlet 
on  "Infant  Gardens  "  also,  and  her  co-workers,  Madam 


28        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

Ronge  and  her  husband,  had  written  a  "  Practical  Guide 
to  the  English  Kindergartens."  These  articles  had  re- 
ceived considerable  attention  in  the  United  States. 

In  1862  an  article  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  by  Miss 
Peabody,  entitled  "What  is  a  Kindergarten?"  attracted 
further  attention  to  the  movement,  and  the  interest  awak- 
ened by  the  article  and  the  kindergarten  itself  led  Miss 
Peabody  to  the  publication  of  her  "Kindergarten  Guide" 
the  following  year.  This  consisted  of  two  parts,  —  an 
exposition  of  the  kindergarten  by  Miss  Peabody,  and  a 
treatise  on  "The  Moral  Culture  of  Infancy"  by  her 
sister,  Mrs.  Horace  Mann,  who  had  herself  been  a  teacher 
and  a  co-laborer  with  her  husband  in  his  efforts  for  the 
advancement  of  education.  About  four  thousand  copies 
of  the  "Guide"  were  sold.  The  following  year  Mrs. 
Louise  Pollock  of  West  Newton,  Mass.,  already  mentioned, 
translated  one  of  the  German  kindergarten  manuals. 
She  also  wrote  a  series  of  articles  concerning  the  kinder- 
garten for  a  magazine  called  The  Friend  of  Progress. 

To  familiarize  the  public  still  further  with  the  kinder- 
garten and  with  the  educational  principles  that  it  repre- 
sents. Miss  Peabody  wrote  for  the  New  York  Herald,  in 
1867-1868,  a  series  of  articles  upon  the  subject.  The 
following  year  Miss  Peabody,  Mrs.  Mann,  the  Baroness 
von  Buelow,  and  others  wrote  a  series  of  articles  on  the 
kindergarten  and  child  culture  in  general  for  The  Herald 
of  Health.  The  editor  of  this  magazine  was  Dr.  M.  L.  Hol- 
brook,  "  the  first  journalistic  friend  of  the  kindergarten." 
He  had  been  connected  with  Dr.  Dio  Lewis  in  his  efforts 


PERIOD  OF  introduction;  early  literature     29 

for  the  advancement  of  physical  cuhure,  and  was  at  that 
time  connected  with  the  Hygienic  Institute  of  New  York 
City,  which  advocated  the  cure  of  the  sick  by  hygiene  and 
right  living  —  a  new  idea  at  the  time.  These  articles  did 
much  to  acquaint  a  progressive  class  of  people  with  methods 
of  child  rearing  more  rational  then  those  which  had  thus 
far  prevailed. 

Among  the  leading  contributors  to  the  advancement  of  the 
kindergarten  idea  at  this  time  was  Professor  John  Kraus, 
a  friend  of  Froebel,  who  had  settled  in  San  Antonio,  Texas, 
in  185 1.  Professor  Kraus  had  contributed  to  American 
journals  frequent  articles  upon  the  Froebel-Pestalozzian 
methods,  a  series  in  The  Army  and  Navy  Gazette  having  at- 
tracted considerable  attention.  Recognizing  the  value  of 
his  acquaintance  with  the  educational  thought  of  Germany, 
Dr.  Barnard  had  invited  him  in  1867  to  become  a  member 
of  the  staff  of  the  Bureau  of  Education.  During  the  year 
he  had  contributed  to  the  Washington  papers  a  valuable 
series  of  articles  upon  the  nature  and  purposes  of  the  kin- 
dergarten. In  1870  and  187 1  he  translated  a  pamphlet 
by  the  Baroness  von  Buelow,  and  made  an  elaborate  report 
upon  the  kindergarten  for  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Education.  In  this  and  other  ways  he  helped  to  keep 
the  kindergarten  cause  before  the  public. 
^To  acquaint  the  public  with  the  value  of  the  new  system 
of  child  training  was  one  of  the  purposes  of  the  friends  of 
the  movement  during  the  early  years,  but  another  need 
speedily  developed.  As  the  demand  for  kindergartners 
increased   and   adequate   opportunities   for   kindergarten 


30        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

training  were  still  lacking,  many  with  little  or  no  prepara- 
tion attempted  to  open  kindergartens.  It  soon  became 
evident  that  if  these  were  to  continue,  technical  instruction 
in  the  use  of  the  kindergarten  instrumentalities  was  needed. 
It  was  to  meet  this  need  that  Mrs.  Pollock  had  translated 
one  of  the  German  manuals  in  1865,  and  that  Edward 
Wiebe  had  prepared  his  "Paradise  of  Childhood"  in 
1869.  It  was  because  Professor  Kraus  and  Mrs.  Kraus- 
Boelte  felt  that  these  books  did  not  sufficiently  indicate 
the  use  of  the  materials  and  meet  the  needs  of  the  many 
partially  trained  kindergartners  that  they  undertook  later 
what  is  undoubtedly  their  most  important  contribution  to 
the  movement,  the  "Kindergarten  Guide,"  the  first 
installment  of  which  appeared  in  1877. 

During  the  decade  between  1870  and  1880  several  im- 
portant books  were  written  and  translated.  The  first 
of  these  in  order  of  time  was  "The  Kindergarten ;  A  Man- 
ual for  the  Introduction  of  Froebel's  System  of  Primary 
Education  into  the  Public  Schools,"  by  Dr.  Adolph 
Douai  of  Newark,  N.J.,  the  principal  of  one  of  the  first 
German-English  institutions  in  the  United  States  to  adopt 
the  kindergarten.  In  1872,  Madam  Matilde  Kriege 
made  a  free  translation  of  the  Baroness  von  Buelow's 
"The  Child,"  and  in  1873  Professor  William  N.  Hailman 
wrote  his  "  Kindergarten  Culture."  The  lectures  by  which 
the  Baroness  von  Buelow  had  converted  Paris  to  the 
kindergarten  cause  were  translated  in  1876  under  the  title 
"Education  by  Labor,"  and  her  "Reminiscences  of 
Froebel"  was  translated  by  Mrs.  Mann  the  following  year. 


PERIOD   OF   introduction;   EARLY  LITERATURE       3 1 

Madam  Kraus-Boelte's  "Guide"  also  appeared  during 
1877.  Several  of  Miss  Peabody's  lectures  had  appeared 
from  time  to  time  in  pamphlet  form.  Through  the  trans- 
lations of  Miss  Josephine  Jarvis  and  Miss  Fanny  Dwight 
in  1879,  Froebel's  "Mother  Play  and  Nursery  Songs" 
was  made  accessible  to  English  readers-  The  same  year 
Dr.  Holbrook  translated  and  published  "From  Cradle  to 
School"  by  Bertha  Meyer,  and  Mrs.  Pollock  a  collection 
of  "Kindergarten  Songs  and  Games."  All  these  helped 
to  satisfy  the  increasing  demand  for  a  fuller  knowledge 
of  the  kindergarten,  and  the  philosophy  of  which  it  is  the 
embodiment. 

An  important  step  in  the  advancement  of  the  kinder- 
garten was  taken  in  1873,  when  Miss  Peabody  estab- 
lished The  Kindergarten  Messenger,  a  monthly  magazine  of 
twenty-four  octavo  pages.  This  was  especially  needed 
at  this  time,  as  it  acquainted  the  scattered  workers  with 
each  other,  and  afforded  a  means  of  communication  be- 
tween them.  In  addition  to  reports  from  leading  workers, 
correspondence,  and  general  educational  intelligence,  it 
contained  original  articles,  theoretical  and  practical,  by 
leading  kindergartners.  The  translation  of  "Reminis- 
cences of  Froebel,"  "Education  by  Labor,"  and  other 
books  appeared  first  in  its  pages.  It  gives  a  vivid  picture 
of  kindergarten  conditions  during  this  introductory  period, 
and  the  personality  of  the  gifted  editor  is  felt  in  every  page. 
It  is  a  veritable  mine  of  data  for  the  future  historian  of  the 
movement. 

The  fortunes  of  the  little  magazine  were  varied.    In  the 


32        THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

Peabody  number  of  The  Kindergarten  Review,  Miss  Emilie 
Poulsson  says:  "Miss  Peabody  had  her  struggle  in  main- 
taining the  Messenger.  The  list  of  subscribers  was  never 
long,  and  not  all  of  these  were  so  good  as  to  pay  their  dues. 
The  editor  records  that  one  year  it  covered  its  own  expenses, 
but  that  did  not  happen  twice.  Although  all  her  own 
service  was  given  free  there  was  much  financial  worry 
connected  with  the  enterprise,  and  she  was  often  grateful 
for  the  kind  help  received  from  one  or  another  of  her 
friends."  The  Messenger  continued  through  1873,  1874, 
and  1875,  but  the  next  year  it  became  a  department  of 
The  New  England  Journal  of  Education.  This  arrange- 
ment, however,  did  not  satisfy  Miss  Peabody,  and  in  Janu- 
ary, 1877,  sh^  again  took  the  magazine  into  her  own  hands 
and  ran  it  to  the  end  of  the  year.  As  the  thousand  sub- 
scribers needed  to  meet  expenses  could  not  be  obtained,  it 
was  merged  in  The  New  Education  conducted  by  Professor 
Hailman,  then  of  Milwaukee. 

The  kindergarten  interest  that  Professor  Hailman  had 
found  existing  in  Milwaukee,  and  the  financial  support 
offered  by  Mr.  Carl  H.  Doerflinger  of  that  city,  had  enabled 
him  to  establish  in  1876  the  periodical  in  which  The  Kin- 
dergarten Messenger  had  now  been  merged.  The  New 
Education  was  an  eight-page  magazine,  issued  monthly. 
In  the  first  number  Professor  Hailman  thus  stated  the 
purpose  of  the  new  publication.  ''Froebel  and  Herbert 
Spencer  are  the  principal  exponents  of  the  new  education; 
the  kindergarten,  Froebel's  great  gift  to  man,  is  the  first 
decisive  practical  step  toward  a  realization  of  its  require- 


PERIOD  OF  introduction;  early  literature     33 

ments.  To  aid  in  the  propagation  of  the  views  of  Froebel 
and  Spencer  on  education ;  to  render  the  former,  particu- 
larly, better  known;  to  contribute  in  spreading  the  bless- 
ings of  kindergarten  culture  in  its  genuine  form  and  to 
make  war  upon  all  efforts  for  establishing  spurious  systems 
under  cover  of  the  honored  name,  —  are  the  purposes  of 
The  New  Education ^  Like  The  Kindergarten  Messenger 
it  contained  practical  articles  for  mothers  and  kindergart- 
ners,  news  concerning  the  spread  of  the  new  educational 
gospel,  translations  from  standard  German  educators,  dis- 
cussions of  current  educational  questions,  and  vigorous 
and  incisive  editorials.  Its  scope  was  broader  than  that 
of  its  predecessor,  and  it  played  a  most  important  part  in 
advancing  the  kindergarten  cause  and  in  shaping  the 
educational  policy  of  the  Northwest  during  its  formative 
period.  Professor  Hailman  modestly  ascribed  much  of 
the  credit  to  the  unwearying  generosity  of  the  publisher, 
Mr.  Doerflinger,  who  for  years  sent  the  periodical  free  to 
the  leading  school  men  of  the  state.  He  says:  "We  have 
little  doubt  that  to  this  generosity,  aided  by  his  personal 
effort  as  a  member  of  the  State  Board  of  Normal  Regents, 
Wisconsin  is  largely  indebted  for  her  present  advanced 
position  on  the  questions  discussed  in  The  New  Education.'^ 
After  six  years  of  existence  it  went  the  way  of  its  predeces- 
sor, and  was  merged  in  The  Public  School  of  Boston. 
Like  its  predecessor  it  is  invaluable  for  the  educational 
historian. 

The  record  of  the  kindergarten  literature  of  the  period 
would  be  incomplete  without  reference  to  the  annual  school 


34        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

reports  of  the  superintendents  in  those  cities  which  had 
adopted  the  kindergarten.  Dr.  Richard  G.  Boone  consid- 
ers that  "the  reports  of  school  officers  and  educators  in- 
clude by  far  the  largest  part  of  America's  contribution  to 
the  literature  of  education."  He  says :  "  But  the  most  com- 
plete and  systematic  presentation  of  educational  philos- 
ophy is  to  be  found  in  the  annual  reports  of  Superintendent 
William  T.  Harris,  while  superintendent  of  the  St.  Louis 
schools,  from  1867  to  1880."  Three  of  these  dealt  with 
the  kindergarten.  That  of  1875-1876  discussed  its  philos- 
ophy; that  of  the  following  year  the  results  of  the  kin- 
dergarten in  the  St.  Louis  schools,  and  that  of  1878-1879 
the  history  of  the  St.  Louis  kindergarten  system.  Although 
these  reports  seldom  reached  the  general  public,  they  were 
read  by  the  leading  school  men  of  the  country,  and  did 
much  to  shape  educational  opinion.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  articles  on  the  kindergarten  read  before  the  National 
Educational  Association,  and  embodied  in  the  reports  of 
that  organization. 

No  statement  concerning  kindergarten  progress  in  the 
United  States  during  this  period  would  be  complete  with- 
out a  reference  to  the  two  principal  kindergarten  supply 
and  publishing  companies,  the  Milton  Bradley  Company, 
of  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  the  Steiger  Company,  of  New 
York  City.  Mr.  Bradley's  life  experience  had  prepared 
him  for  conversion  to  the  kindergarten  cause  in  1869, 
and  through  the  improvement  he  has  made  in  kinder- 
garten material  and  the  assistance  rendered  in  the  publica- 
tion of  kindergarten  literature,  he  has  won  deserved  rec- 


PERIOD  OF  introduction;  early  literature     35 

ognition  among  kindergarten  workers.  Mr.  Steiger,  too, 
rendered  valuable  assistance  during  the  early  years. 
His  confession  of  kindergarten  faith  was  made  in  the 
publisher's  preface  to  Madam  Kriege's  translation  of 
"The  Child."  He  says:  "The  publisher  of  this  book 
is  resolved  to  expend  his  best  energies  in  the  interest  of 
education.  He  has  witnessed  with  lively  satisfaction  the 
progress  of  education  in  this  country;  but  while  appre- 
ciating the  good  that  has  been  done,  he  agrees  with  the 
opinion  of  many  that  the  system  is  capable  of  improvement. 
He  has,  therefore,  embraced  the  cause  of  the  kindergarten, 
as  best  calculated  in  his  judgment  to  inaugurate  a  thorough 
educational  reform;  and  he  will  gladly  entertain  pro- 
posals for  the  publication  of  other  works  on  the  subject 
and  cheerfully  cooperate  with  school  authorities,  associa- 
tions, and  individuals  whose  aim  is  the  amelioration  of 
existing  modes  of  instruction." 

If  the  friends  of  the  kindergarten  had  reason  to  rejoice 
at  the  progress  of  the  institution  itself  during  the  decade 
under  consideration,  they  had  no  less  reason  for  satis- 
faction at  the  increase  in  its  literature.  In  1870,  there  were 
in  the  English  language,  as  far  as  known,  but  four  books 
on  the  kindergarten,  —  Madam  Ronge's  "Practical  Guide 
to  the  English  Kindergarten,"  Miss  Peabody's  "Kinder- 
garten Guide,"  Mrs.  Pollock's  translation  of  a  German 
manual,  and  Wiebe's  "Paradise  of  Childhood,"  a  com- 
pilation from  several  such  manuals.  During  the  decade 
five  important  books  had  been  translated  in  the  United 
States,  —  the    Baroness    von    Buelow's    "The    Child," 


36        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

"  Education  by  Labor,"  and  "Reminiscences  of  Froebel" ; 
Froebel's  "Mother  Play  and  Nursery  Songs,"  and  Bertha 
Meyer's  "From  the  Cradle  to  the  School."  Four  books 
had  been  written,  —  Douai's  "The  Kindergarten,"  Hail- 
man's  "Kindergarten  Culture,"  Madam  Kraus-Boelte's 
"Guide,"  and  Mrs.  Pollock's  "Kindergarten  Songs." 
In  addition  to  this,  hundreds  of  articles  had  appeared  in 
newspapers  and  magazines,  and  several  pamphlets  had 
been  printed,  —  some  for  free  distribution.  The  Kinder- 
garten Messenger  and  The  New  Education  had  scattered 
the  new  ideas  still  farther.  The  seed-sowing  was  surely 
plentiful.  The  harvest  will  be  traced  in  succeeding  chap- 
ters. 


CHAPTER   IV 

The  Period  of  Extension;   General  Character- 
istics 

The  recognition  that  the  kindergarten  had  thus  far 
obtained  had  made  its  extension  a  mere  matter  of  time, 
but  the  history  of  its  progress  since  1880  has  been  inex- 
tricably interwoven  with  the  history  of  American  Hfe  and 
thought  as  a  whole,  and  with  that  of  elementary  education 
in  particular.  Until  that  time  the  progress  of  the  move- 
ment had  been  measured  mainly  by  the  increasing  number 
of  kindergartens  opened;  while  such  increase  continued 
during  the  period  in  question,  it  constituted  but  one  phase 
of  kindergarten  progress.  The  great  advance  made  during 
the  period  was  the  general  incorporation  of  the  kinder- 
garten into  the  school  system,  and  the  application  of  its 
principles  to  elementary  education.  This  was  not  accom- 
plished in  a  day  or  even  in  a  decade.  Even  the  quarter 
century  that  had  passed  since  the  date  mentioned  has  not 
brought  about  the  general  adoption  of  the  kindergarten 
as  an  institution  or  the  general  application  of  its  principles 
to  primary  education.  If  the  new  movements  which  the 
Philadelphia  Exposition  had  suggested  could,  with  the  dawn 
of  the  new  decade,  have  been  introduced  into  every  city 
in  the  land  by  royal  edict  or  magic  power ;  if  fully  equipped 

37 


38        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

kindergartens  and  complete  drawing  and  manual  training 
courses  could  have  been  put  into  operation  everywhere  by 
the  pressing  of  a  magic  button  at  the  stroke  of  an  imperial 
clock,  it  would  doubtless  have  retarded  instead  of  advanced 
the  ultimate  progress  of  the  kindergarten,  the  school  and 
the  American  people.  Insight  into  the  new  tendencies 
could  not  but  be  superficial  at  first,  and  the  deepening  of 
insight  was  a  need  that  required  time  before  the  many- 
sided  significance  of  the  new  movements  could  be  grasped. 
This  has  been  proved  by  the  experience  of  more  than  one 
city  in  organizing  its  art  and  manual  training  courses, 
for  example,  upon  a  practical  rather  than  upon  a  psy- 
chological basis.  Some  of  these  found  themselves  upon 
the  wrong  track  after  a  time,  and  adopted  a  new  course. 
Some  are  on  the  wrong  track  still,  and  have  never  dis- 
covered it.  What  has  proved  true  of  drawing  and  manual 
training  has  proved  equally  true  of  kindergartens  pre- 
maturely introduced.  Some  of  these  that  have  deteriorated 
into  a  mechanical  routine  may  be  seen  even  now.  This 
is  also  true  of  the  so-called  "kindergarten  methods  in 
primary  work."  This  was  too  often  a  superficial  manipu- 
lation of  kindergarten  material  with  older  children,  with- 
out adequate  insight  into  the  principles  that  underlie 
kindergarten  procedure.  Premature  adoption  and  formu- 
lation have  been  the  cause  of  many  a  failure,  not  in  edu- 
cation alone.  The  apparent  lagging  of  the  footsteps  of 
progress  was  therefore  in  many  respects  a  blessing  in  dis- 
guise. 
The  remedy  was  time,  and  the  influences  that  were  at 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   characteristics         39 

work  among  the  American  people  deepening  their  intellec- 
tual and  spiritual  life  in  spite  of  other  influences  that  were 
tending  to  its  deterioration.  "Few  quarter  centuries  in 
the  world's  life  bristle  with  salient  events  as  does  that 
following  1870,"  says  E.  Benjamin  Andrews  in  discussing 
the  political  significance  of  the  period.  An  estimate  of 
its  significance  in  the  history  of  American  thought  would 
accord  it  a  like  commendation.  There  was  a  new  stir 
in  the  pulses  of  the  nation  when  the  more  immediate  and 
vexing  problems  resulting  from  the  Civil  War  were  dis- 
posed of.  The  great  development  of  the  nation's  indus- 
trial resources  was  increasing  its  wealth,  and  this  increase 
in  turn  was  developing  the  intellectual  and  spiritual 
power  of  the  people.  In  response  to  the  increasing  de- 
mand for  higher  education,  a  veritable  renaissance  set  in. 
Colleges  multiplied  alike  for  men  and  women.  Graduate 
departments  came  into  existence  to  meet  the  need  for 
advanced  and  specialized  instruction.  New  sciences 
opened  up  attractive  vistas  and  promises  of  almost  un- 
limited power.  The  new  psychology  and  the  newly 
organized  social  sciences  led  into  absorbing  fields  of  thought 
hitherto  practically  unknown.  New  ideals  had  dawned 
upon  the  colleges  themselves  and  the  passion  for  social 
service  was  born. 

But  this  was  merely  one  phase  of  the  general  enrich- 
ment of  life.  There  had  been  art  and  artists  during  the 
earlier  part  of  the  century,  as  the  names  of  Copley,  West, 
and  Stuart  testify,  but  art  had  never  been  an  organic  part 
of  the  national  life.     "The  Puritan  immigrants  of  New 


40        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

England  had  all  the  abhorrence  of  art  which  had  marked 
the  followers  of  the  Reformation,  and  for  two  centuries 
the  bare,  whitewashed  walls  of  their  plain  meeting-houses 
were  eloquent  in  protest  against  the  art  adornment  of 
ancient  church  or  chapel,"  says  Isaac  Clarke  in  "Educa- 
tion in  the  United  States."  "Nor  did  the  long,  hard 
struggle  to  wrest  sustenance  from  stony  soil  or  stormy 
sea  afford  any  space  of  leisure  for  those  artistic  occupa- 
tions that  to  the  stern  Puritan  were  worse  than  folly," 
he  says  further.  As  a  result,  however,  of  indirect  causes 
too  complex  for  analysis  here,  and  the  immediate  stimulus 
of  the  Philadelphia  Exposition,  an  immediate  wave  of 
art  enthusiasm  spread  over  the  country,  which  during  the 
past  quarter  century  has  been  steadily  increasing.  In 
1870  there  were  but  ten  institutions  in  the  country  that 
gave  any  form  of  art  instruction,  but  four  art  museums, 
and  a  complete  poverty  of  art  treasures  of  any  kind.  In 
1880  the  number  of  art  schools  had  increased  to  over 
thirty,  and  there  had  been  a  corresponding  increase  in 
the  number  of  museums  and  galleries.  Before  the  cen- 
tury closed  one  hundred  seventeen  art  schools  and  forty- 
one  art  galleries  had  been  established.  Some  of  the  schools 
and  galleries  have  an  international  reputation. 

The  demand  for  art  knowledge  and  instruction  that  had 
brought  about  such  results  had  been  fostered  in  part  by 
the  schools  themselves,  in  part  by  art  exhibitions  and 
lectures,  and  in  part  by  the  first-hand  acquaintance  with 
the  world's  great  masterpieces,  gained  by  the  increasing 
army  of  tourists  to  the  historic  galleries  of  Europe.     It 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   characteristics         41 

was  strengthened  by  the  growing  number  of  American 
students  who  sought  abroad  the  opportunities  that  their 
own  country  did  not  yet  afford,  and  who  upon  their  return 
taught  in  new  forms  the  great  ministry  of  beauty  to  the 
Ufe  of  humanity.  This  sudden  awakening  of  thousands 
to  the  significance  of  the  world's  art  treasures  can  only  be 
compared  to  that  other  period  in  the  world's  life  when  a 
young  and  virile  people  came  into  unexpected  possession 
of  the  priceless  heritage  of  Greek  and  Roman  thought. 
Samuel  Isham  says  in  the  "History  of  American  Painting"  : 
"Taking  a  whole  nation  whose  ideals,  although  high,  had 
hitherto  been  purely  material,  intellectual,  and  moral, 
and  endowing  it  with  a  perception  of  the  beauties  of  art 
is  an  accomplishment  without  any  parallel  —  at  least  on 
so  large  a  scale."  That  the  art  appreciation  of  the  people 
as  a  whole  is  still  undeveloped  must  be  admitted,  but  the 
value  of  art  as  a  stimulus  to  the  higher  spiritual  life  will 
never  again  be  questioned. 

Along  with  the  awakening  to  the  value  of  pictorial  and 
decorative  art  came  a  like  awakening  in  the  world  of 
music.  The  value  of  music  as  a  factor  in  elementary 
education  had  been  recognized  for  a  generation  before 
pictorial  art  had  been  accorded  such  recognition,  and 
there  had  been  a  gradual  growth  in  musical  taste  and 
feeling  instead  of  a  sudden  awakening  to  its  significance. 
There  had  been  much  seed-sowing  in  the  musical  field 
during  the  generation  that  had  passed  since  Lowell  Mason 
had  secured  the  introduction  of  music  into  the  public 
schools  of  Boston  in  1838,  and  the  harvest  surpassed  in 


42        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

richness  the  hopes  of  even  the  most  sanguine.  "There 
are  few  periods  in  the  history  of  any  country  in  which  the 
progress  of  art  has  been  so  rapid  as  the  progress  of  music 
since  the  Civil  War,"  says  Mathews  in  the  "History of 
American  Music."  The  war  had  beert  a  great  awakener 
of  mind  and  it  had  stirred  the  emotional  life  of  the  people 
to  its  very  depths.  This  gave  a  power  of  interpretation 
that  comes  only  from  profound  spiritual  experiences. 
Before  this  time  the  centers  of  musical  life  and  interest 
had  been  in  the  East  —  in  New  York  and  Boston  chiefly. 
The  interest  now  spread  to  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  it 
was  not  long  before  Cincinnati  and  Chicago  rivaled  their 
sister  cities  in  musical  appreciation  and  in  the  opportunities 
offered  for  musical  study.  Musical  societies  were  organ- 
ized everywhere,  and  the  musical  masterpieces  of  the  world, 
like  the  great  masterpieces  of  painting  and  sculpture, 
came  to  have  a  significance  for  thousands  to  whom  they 
had  hitherto  been  but  names.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the 
conservatories  and  colleges  of  music  now  to  be  found  in 
every  large  city,  were  founded  and  began  to  vie  with  the 
art  schools  in  interest  and  prophecy  of  a  fuller  develop- 
ment for  the  youth  of  the  land.  "In  these  musical  ambi- 
tion and  talent  found  opportunity  for  improvement,  and  for 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge  of  the  higher  walks  of  art," 
says  Mr.  Mathews  again.  Residence  and  study  in  the 
musical  centers  of  Europe  on  the  part  of  many  added  to  the 
insight  gained,  and  raised  the  general  standard  of  musical 
intelligence  among  the  people  at  large.  Since  the  themes 
of  the  great  masterpieces  deal  with  the  fundamental  ex- 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   characteristics         43 

periences  of  human  life  or  portray  vital  facts  of  Chris- 
tianity, this  growth  of  art  insight  could  not  but  deepen  and 
enrich  the  emotional  and  spiritual  life  of  the  people.  In 
the  growing  insight  into  and  appreciation  of  the  aesthetic, 
the  foundations  for  a  more  fundamental  education  were 
being  laid. 

While  the  life  of  the  people  was  thus  gaining  in  emotional 
power  along  the  aesthetic  lines,  it  was  taking  on  added 
richness  in  another  direction,  having  apparently  little 
relation  either  to  art  or  to  education,  but  in  reality  having 
the  most  profound  significance  for  both.  The  ethical 
and  religious  life  of  the  people  was  undergoing  a  gradual 
change,  —  one  that  to  many  seemed  an  undermining  of  the 
very  foundations  of  the  social  order,  but  that  to  others 
meant  the  reestablishing  of  faith  and  virtue  upon  a  deeper 
and  firmer  foundation.  Ever  since  civil  authority  had 
supplanted  ecclesiastical  authority  in  the  control  of  educa- 
tion, fears  had  been  expressed  for  the  moral  safety  of 
American  life.  A  half  century  or  more  of  nonsectarian 
education  had,  however,  shown  no  such  falling  off  in  public 
morals  as  might  have  been  expected  if  morality  were  de- 
pendent upon  instruction  in  religious  dogma.  But  while 
such  instruction  is  no  guarantee  of  character  there  must  be  a 
foundation  of  spiritual  life,  both  in  the  individual  and  in  the 
nation  —  a  recognition  of  the  moral  law  and  an  obedience 
to  it.  That  the  religion  of  creeds  and  observances  is  on 
the  wane  —  among  Protestants  at  least  —  none  will  deny ; 
that  there  has  been  a  compensating  gain  is  becoming 
increasingly  evident  to  all  who  are  in  touch  with  ethical 


44        THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

and  religious  thought  and  the  appUcation  of  that  thought 
to  social  conditions  and  problems.  This  gain  has  come  in 
large  part  from  the  gradual  reconstruction  of  religious 
thought  necessitated  by  the  doctrine  of  evolution.  A  new 
order  of  thinking  and  new  motives  to  conduct  could  not 
but  result  from  the  acceptance  of  the  view  that  man,  as 
the  highest  expression  of  the  omnipresent  and  eternal 
energy  manifested  in  the  universe,  is  ideally  akin  to  that 
energy — God,  and  "if  not  made,  at  least  making  in  the 
divine  image;"  that  the  moral  law  is  the  law  of  man's 
highest  nature,  and  that  the  existence  of  such  a  law  is 
evidence  of  a  moral  order  in  which  humanity  is  grounded ; 
that  sin  had  its  origin  in  the  animal  inheritance  from  which 
man  is  gradually  emerging;  and  that  redemption  is  the 
perfect  and  final  emergence  from  the  animal  into  the 
spiritual  state.  Such  an  interpretation  of  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  Christianity  carried  with  it  social  implications 
that  are  far  reaching  in  their  consequences.  It  gave  a 
new  dignity  to  humanity,  and  brought  with  it  a  new  sense 
of  human  brotherhood.  It  created  a  clearer  vision  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  on  earth,  and  carried  with  it  the  conviction 
that  the  coming  of  that  kingdom  depended  upon  the  agencies 
that  society  could  put  into  operation,  and  could  be  hastened 
in  no  small  degree.  It  brought  with  it  a  new  and  deepened 
sense  of  social  obligation  and  a  broader  recognition  of 
human  rights.  It  resulted  in  the  extension  of  social 
interest  that  is  expressed  in  the  social  settlement  and 
kindred  institutions.  Combined  with  influences  from  other 
sources  it  set  the  currents  of  present-day  thought  in  the 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   characteristics         45 

direction  of  social  betterment  and  thus  created  the  "social 
movement." 

It  is  the  new  insight  into  the  social  significance  of  Christ's 
teaching  that  has  brought  the  church  face  to  face  with  new 
and  intricate  problems.  To  the  question  whether  the 
church  could,  if  she  would,  undertake  the  whole  problem 
of  man's  salvation  —  material  as  well  as  spiritual  —  to 
which  the  interpretation  in  question  seems  to  point,  the 
institutional  church  is  the  provisional  answer.  Rev. 
Josiah  Strong  says  in  a  recent  article  on  the  institutional 
church  in  Current  Literature:  "Many  fail  to  perceive  the 
profound  importance  of  the  religious  changes  which  are 
taking  place  or  to  suspect  that  they  are  destined  to  produce 
a  new  type  of  civilization.  For  many  years  the  church 
laid  emphasis  on  man's  relation  to  God,  and  forgot  to 
emphasize  his  relation  to  man.  The  new  emphasis  laid 
upon  the  social  teachings  of  Jesus  is  bringing  a  new  order 
of  civilization."  The  present  problems  of  the  church  are 
therefore  twofold :  She  must  interpret  her  fundamental 
principles  upon  a  new  basis ;  and  she  must  reorganize  and 
enlarge  her  forms  of  activity.  The  passing  from  the  old  to 
the  new  ideals  and  forms  of  effort  is  no  easy  process,  but 
the  end  toward  which  present  thought  is  tending  is  becom- 
ing increasingly  clear  and  results  cannot  but  follow. 

It  is  in  part  because  the  program  of  social  reform  that 
present  conditions  demand  could  not  be  undertaken  by 
any  church  or  federation  of  churches;  and  in  part  be- 
cause of  the  growth  of  social  interest  and  responsibility 
among   the   people   at   large,    that   philanthropic   work. 


46        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

public  and  private,  has  assumed  increasing  importance  and 
aroused  increasing  interest  during  the  past  few  years. 
Charity  had  always  existed  and  agencies  for  the  relief  of 
suffering  in  some  of  its  many  forms  had  been  organized 
from  time  to  time.  But  the  increasing  need  for  philan- 
thropic effort  which  is  due  to  a  multiplicity  of  causes  tend- 
ing to  the  deterioration  of  life  in  the  large  cities,  could  not 
but  challenge  the  thoughtful  to  a  study  of  the  conditions 
and  spur  to  more  serious  effort  the  increasing  enthusiasm 
for  social  reform.  A  study  of  conditions  so  complex 
called,  however,  for  training  of  the  highest  order,  and  the 
rendering  of  efficient  social  service  required  a  preparation 
not  to  be  acquired  by  ordinary  courses  or  methods.  The 
growing  recognition  of  these  facts  resulted  in  the  establish- 
ment of  departments  of  sociology  in  all  the  larger  universi- 
ties, and  in  gradually  adding  courses  in  social  economics. 
This  movement,  combined  with  that  successfully  carried 
out  in  all  the  larger  cities,  —  the  organization  of  all  relief 
agencies,  secular  and  religious,  into  a  Charity  Organization 
Society,  —  will  ultimately  create  a  system  of  social  better- 
ment commensurate  with  the  importance  of  the  task.  As 
the  social  and  industrial  life  becomes  more  integrated, 
the  improvement  in  material  conditions  is  so  interwoven 
with  the  development  of  higher  ideals  and  the  enrichment 
of  the  spiritual  life  that  the  two  cannot  be  effectively  pro- 
vided for  except  through  the  cooperated  effort  that  such 
an  organization  implies.  Tenement  and  sanitary  reform, 
improvement  in  the  conditions  of  labor,  protection  from 
communicable  diseases,  the  care  of  the  destitute  sick  — 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   characteristics         47 

these  and  other  forms  of  effort  for  social  betterment  are 
not  only  good  in  themselves,  but  also  serve  as  important 
means  of  strengthening  the  moral  and  spiritual  nature. 
The  agencies  that  would  relieve  the  spiritual  poverty  that 
causes  in  part  the  material  ills;  that  would  substitute 
thrift,  sobriety,  and  virtue  for  incompetence,  intemperance, 
and  vice  —  do  not  they  contribute  materially  to  the  better- 
ment of  the  life  that  now  is?  Philanthropy  so  organized 
will  become  what  it  should  be,  —  one  of  the  great  forces 
for  the  world's  salvation. 

It  would  be  little  to  the  credit  of  the  social  economist 
and  his  practical  co-worker  if  the  futility  of  work  merely 
curative  had  not  been  forced  upon  him,  and  if  the  impor- 
tance of  preventive  measures  had  not  been  recognized. 
That  the  cure  of  evil  is  indirectly  preventive  must  be 
admitted,  and  much  of  the  work  mentioned  has  been  and 
will  be  preventive  in  the  large  sense.  But  preventive 
work  must  be  positive  and  direct  as  well  as  indirect. 
Such  work  must  always  be  educational  in  character,  and 
must  begin  with  the  children,  the  true  subjects  of  education. 
It  is  not  strange  therefore  that  philanthropic  interest 
should  have  centered  in  childhood  and  in  the  agencies  for 
its  salvation.  The  story  of  the  efforts  by  which  the  rights 
of  childhood  —  neglected,  dependent,  and  delinquent  — 
have  come  to  be  recognized  is  too  long  for  recital  here, 
and  the  list  of  charities,  public  and  private,  undertaken  in 
its  behalf  too  long  to  enumerate.  The  founding  of  societies 
for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  children  —  a  check  upon 
the  ill  temper  of  parents,  the  passage  of  laws  preventing 


48       THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

child  labor,  and  the  adoption  of  the  probation  system  for 
juvenile  offenders  are  of  special  significance.  Childhood 
has  other  needs,  however,  than  these, — the  need  for  activity, 
inspiration,  joy.  These,  too,  modern  philanthropy  is 
increasingly  providing.  The  city  boy  is  no  longer  obliged 
to  live  in  the  streets ;  public  playgrounds  are  being  conceded 
as  his  right.  He  is  not  driven  to  crime  from  sheer  ennui ; 
library  doors  swing  open,  and  settlement  clubs  and  classes 
invite  him  to  interesting  forms  of  activity.  Vacation 
schools,  recreation  piers,  and  fresh-air  excursions  furnish 
him  with  new  experiences  and  give  him  an  insight  into  the 
great  world  in  which  he  must  soon  take  an  active  part. 
The  provision  for  such  needs,  pitifully  inadequate  as  it 
still  is,  forms  one  of  the  most  interesting  chapters  in  the 
story  of  "the  battle  with  the  slum."  Agencies  for  the 
relief  of  other  kinds  of  need  might  have  been  organized  at 
other  periods  in  the  world's  history;  those  for  furnishing 
childish  happiness  could  only  have  been  devised  in  recent 
years.  It  is  significant  that  all  these  movements  in  the 
direction  of  constructive  and  preventive  philanthropy 
had  their  origin  in  this  country  or  were  adopted  from  other 
countries  during  the  years  between  1870  and  1890.  To- 
gether they  contribute  an  influence  for  the  upbuilding  and 
ennobling  of  character  that  cannot  but  produce  gratifying 
results  in  the  near  future. 

The  relation  of  the  movements  that  have  characterized 
American  life  during  the  past  twenty-five  years  to  ele- 
mentary education  in  general  and  to  the  progress  of  the 
kindergarten  in  particular  can  be  readily  traced.     The 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   characteristics         49 

new  spirit  in  the  universities  and  the  consequent  enrich- 
ment of  the  spiritual  life  of  the  people  was  loosening  the 
hold  of  traditionalism  and  strengthening  the  new  con- 
ception of  education.  The  new  sciences  in  the  univer- 
sities and  new  methods  in  history  and  literature  revealed 
the  emptiness  of  the  elementary  curriculum,  based  upon 
the  disciplinary  conception  of  education  alone,  and  the 
need  of  "content  studies"  in  the  grades.  The  "new 
psychology"  and  the  introduction  of  courses  in  education 
into  the  university  curriculum  not  only  gave  a  more  funda- 
mental insight  into  the  nature  of  the  educational  process, 
but  it  dignified  education  and  placed  it  upon  a  scientific 
basis.  These  new  insights  gave  an  added  significance 
to  the  kindergarten  which  embodies  the  views  that  were 
coming  into  the  educational  consciousness.  Up  to  this 
time  educational  effort  had  centered  itself  mainly  with 
the  problems  incident  to  the  period  of  organization.  From 
1880  on  it  began  to  occupy  itself  fundamentally  with  the 
problems  of  educational  theory.  The  last  two  decades  of 
the  century  became  periods  of  reform  and  transformation. 

The  general  development  of  artistic  taste  and  musical 
intelligence  was  tending  also  toward  educational  reform. 
It  seconded  the  dissatisfaction  with  the  curriculum  of 
the  Three  R's  where  such  a  curriculum  still  prevailed; 
it  encouraged  the  introduction  of  the  aesthetic  element 
into  education;  and  it  showed  an  appreciative  interest 
in  the  true  purpose  of  the  new  studies  where  these  had 
already  been  introduced.  As  the  kindergarten  had 
emphasized  the  value  of  beauty  in  developing  the  ideal 


50        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

side  of  a  child's  life  and  had  insisted  upon  plants  and 
pictures  in  the  kindergarten  when  there  were  none  as  yet 
in  the  school,  its  doctrines  found  particular  favor,  and  an 
era  of  decorating  schoolrooms  and  beautifying  school 
grounds  set  in.  The  kindergarten  therefore  rose  in  favor 
and  its  doctrines  aroused  a  new  interest. 

But  the  awakening  of  the  public  to  the  value  of  beauty 
as  a  factor  in  the  child's  development  was  not  the  greatest 
service  that  the  kindergarten  rendered  to  art  education. 
The  disciples  of  Froebel  had  urged  their  fundamental 
doctrine  of  creative  activity,  but  the  school  had  been  slow 
to  understand,  and  slower  still  to  accept  a  doctrine  so  at 
variance  with  its  traditional  form  of  procedure.  When 
artists,  however,  not  only  recognized  the  correctness  of  the 
principle  but  insisted  that  all  art  instruction  should  be 
based  upon  it,  the  public  began  to  wake  up.  Verily,  the 
stone  that  the  educational  builders  rejected  has  become 
the  head  of  the  corner  in  the  educational  structure.  It 
is  in  this  particular  respect  that  the  kindergarten  has 
been  a  positive  influence  in  the  transformation  of  the 
school. 

The  advancing  musical  intelligence  likewise  made 
itself  felt  in  elementary  education.  The  early  musical 
work  in  the  public  schools  had  been  confined  almost 
wholly  to  teaching  the  musical  notation.  It  was  now 
seen  that  this  was  not  the  true  foundation  for  a  musical 
education,  that  music  must  be  given  a  meaning  to  the 
child,  and  that  a  love  of  song  must  be  developed  before 
instruction  in  musical  notation  could  have  any  signifi- 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   characteristics         51 

cance.  In  other  words,  it  was  recognized  that  music, 
like  representative  art,  must  begin  in  feeling  and  intelli- 
gence, and  not  in  technique.  Although  the  music  of  the 
kindergarten  left  much  to  be  desired  in  the  early  da>s  of 
the  movement,  it  was  sufficiently  different  from  that  of 
the  school  to  attract  the  attention  of  musical  people  and 
to  indicate  that  it  was  based  upon  different  principles. 
They  recognized  in  the  child's  song,  taught  by  rote,  a 
means  of  cultivating  his  love  of  music,  and  in  the  various 
piano  exercises  a  means  of  cultivating  his  musical  intelli- 
gence and  power  of  interpretation.  For  this  reason  also 
the  kindergarten  rose  in  public  esteem.  The  musical 
teaching  of  the  school  has  been  reconstructed  within 
recent  years,  and  the  kindergarten  has  been  the  determin- 
ing element  in  that  reconstruction. 

Although  the  new  views  in  religion  and  ethics  and  the 
new  interest  focused  upon  child  saving  have  influenced 
school  work  and  school  methods  less  directly  than  have 
the  more  fundamental  study  of  educational  theory  and 
the  appreciation  of  the  value  of  the  aesthetic,  the  indirect 
influence  of  these  new  views  has  already  been  far-reaching. 
The  opponents  of  the  public  school  system  have  frequently 
pointed  out  the  danger  to  American  life  from  an  education 
without  religion.  But  as  the  new  conceptions  prevail, 
they  will  increasingly  pervade  educational  thought  and 
literature,  and  interpret  the  educational  process  as  a 
spiritual  one.  When  education  has  been  so  conceived, 
every  study  in  the  curriculum  will  contribute  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  higher  life  and  the  Power  that  makes 


52        THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

for  righteousness  will  be  increasingly  felt  in  and  through 
the  whole  educational  process.  When  teachers  are 
inspired  by  such  an  insight,  the  absence  of  dogmatic  in- 
struction will  not  even  be  felt,  for  the  purpose  of  education 
—  the  development  of  character  —  will  have  been  at- 
tained. When  this  view  of  education  —  essentially  the 
Froebelian  view  —  was  first  presented,  it  seemed  visionary 
and  impracticable  to  all  but  the  illumined  few;  the 
Froebelian  emphasis  upon  the  divinity  of  human  nature 
seemed  little  short  of  sacrilege  to  those  who  had  been 
accustomed  to  the  doctrine  of  innate  depravity  only. 
Current  interpretations  of  Christianity  are  quite  in  accord 
with  the  views  which  the  kindergarten  presents,  however, 
and  the  kindergarten  student  not  infrequently  hears  the 
doctrine  presented  in  the  class  room  reenforced  from  the 
pulpit.  The  larger  acceptance  of  these  views  has  given 
added  weight  to  the  philosophy  of  Froebel  and  to  the 
kindergarten  as  its  embodiment.  Here,  too,  the  kinder- 
garten has  been  a  positive  influence.  In  the  stimulus  it 
has  given  to  the  progress  of  liberal  views  and  to  the  study 
of  the  idealistic  philosophy  of  which  it  is  the  outcome,  it 
has  not  only  paid  a  debt  to  philosophy  and  religion,  but 
it  has  also  been  a  means  of  enriching  the  life  and  thought 
of  the  country  of  its  adoption. 

The  "social  movement"  with  its  interest  in  the  agencies 
for  child  saving  has  had  a  more  direct  bearing  upon  the 
methods  of  the  school  than  have  the  newer  interpretations 
of  religious  doctrine.  That  a  child's  school  work  is 
affected  by  the  character  of  his  home  and  environment 


PERIOD  OF  extension;    characteristics         53 

every  teacher  knows.  That  teachers  have  any  moral 
responsibility  for  the  lives  of  their  pupils  outside  of 
schoolroom  walls  and  schoolroom  hours,  that  they  have  any 
responsibility  for  the  social  regeneration  of  the  neighbor- 
hood in  which  their  work  lies,  should  such  regenerating 
be  needed,  many  of  them,  principals  and  superintendents 
included,  would  practically  deny.  It  is  not  so  specified 
in  the  bond  of  the  school  rules.  It  is  just  this  responsi- 
bility that  the  forces  organized  for  the  betterment  of  child- 
hood are  trying  to  bring  home  to  the  conscience  of  the 
school.  That  the  school  has  advanced  by  leaps  and 
bounds  during  the  past  quarter  century  is  readily  granted. 
That  its  organization  is  on  the  whole  good;  that  its 
curriculum  possesses  an  interest  it  did  not  possess  during 
the  earlier  period;  and  that  its  spirit  and  methods  are 
constantly  improving,  none  will  deny.  Its  weakness  lies 
in  its  failure  to  recognize  its  social  and  moral  obligation 
to  the  neighborhood  of  which  it  is  a  part.  Its  aim  is  still 
largely  intellectual  and  its  duties  too  largely  the  duties 
of  the  schoolroom  only.  That  social  settlement  clubs 
and  classes,  summer  camps,  vacation  schools,  and  other 
similar  agencies,  frequently  reach  and  quicken  the  lives 
of  children  with  whom  the  school  has  failed  is  a  matter 
of  frequent  comment.  With  due  recognition  of  the  diffi- 
culties of  philanthropic  effort  arising  from  the  limitation 
of  the  teacher's  time  and  strength,  the  question  may  still 
be  asked  whether  the  passion  for  human  betterment  that 
has  made  itself  so  noticeably  felt  in  the  life  of  the  people 
at  large  during  the  past  two  decades  has  permeated  the 


54        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

school  to  the  extent  that  it  should.  That  something  has 
come  of  the  public  agitation  and  interest  is  evident.  The 
changes  in  the  curriculum  —  the  introduction  of  sewing, 
cooking,  and  manual  training  in  general  —  are  in  part 
a  response  to  this  spirit.  School  authorities  have  aided  in 
securing  child  labor  legislation  and  in  enforcing  its  appli- 
cation. They  have  cooperated  with  probation  officers 
in  eliminating  juvenile  crime,  and  with  municipal  author- 
ities for  the  establishment  of  public  parks  and  play- 
grounds. They  have  given  active  support  to  school 
decoration  and  outdoor  art  societies  in  beautifying  school- 
rooms and  grounds,  and  in  some  instances  have  assisted 
in  organizing  school  children's  lunch  stations.  They 
have  cooperated  with  social  settlements  and  women's 
clubs  in  carrying  on  vacation  schools  and  in  many  instances 
have  eventually  assumed  their  support.  But  the  cry  of 
the  children  is  still  heard.  Here  too  the  kindergarten 
has  been  a  positive  influence.  In  creating  a  new  attitude 
toward  childhood ;  in  cooperating  with  the  home  to  secure 
the  best  conditions  for  the  child's  development ;  in  active 
efforts  for  the  establishment  of  playgrounds,  vacation 
schools,  and  similar  agencies  for  children  of  all  ages,  the 
kindergartners  of  the  country  have  contributed  in  no 
small  degree  to  the  cultivation  of  the  philanthropic  spirit 
in  the  teaching  ranks.  A  more  complete  discussion  of  the 
service  the  kindergarten  has  rendered  to  education  in  this 
respect  is  reserved  for  the  following  chapters. 


CHAPTER   V 

The  Period  of  Extension;    Kindergarten  Associa- 
tions AND  Women's  Clubs 

The  kindergarten  in  the  early  eighties  was  still  in  its 
experimental  stage;  it  had  demonstrated  its  value,  but 
as  yet  to  the  few  only.  Before  its  general  acceptance  by 
the  school  system  could  be  expected,  an  important  work 
still  needed  to  be  done  in  its  behalf.  The  movement 
needed  to  be  illustrated  on  a  large  scale  in  strategic  localities, 
and  the  value  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  child-saving  agency 
demonstrated.  To  meet  this  need  a  new  agency  came 
into  existence  in  all  the  larger  cities,  and  in  many  of  the 
smaller  ones  —  the  kindergarten  association.  Now  that 
kindergartens  have  become  general  and  departments  for 
kindergarten  training  have  been  established  in  many  state 
normal  schools  and  other  educational  institutions,  the 
important  part  that  kindergarten  associations  have  played 
in  furthering  the  kindergarten  movement  is  in  danger  of 
being  lost  sight  of.  The  history  of  kindergarten  progress 
would  neither  be  intelligible  nor  complete,  however, 
without  a  record  of  the  service  that  such  associations  have 
rendered,  not  to  the  kindergarten  alone  but  to  education 
in  general.  They  have  differed  in  aim  and  scope,  in  the 
degree  of  influence  exerted,  in  the  method  of  procedure, 

55 


56        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

and  in  the  results  accomplished,  but  their  service  in 
awakening  educational  thought  and  stimulating  educa- 
tional progress  has  been  of  inestimable  value  in  American 
life.  Some  of  these  associations  considered  their  work 
done  when  the  kindergarten  was  incorporated  into  the 
school  system.  This  was  the  case  in  Philadelphia, 
where  thirty  kindergartens  were  turned  over  to  the  city 
authorities  by  the  Sub-Primary  School  Society,  after  six 
years  of  effort.  Some  associations  affiliated  themselves 
with  the  school  authorities  of  their  locality  when  these 
were  ready  to  adopt  the  kindergarten,  and  cooperated 
with  them  in  kindergarten  maintenance  and  supervision, 
considering  the  cause  best  served  in  this  manner.  This 
plan  has  been  successfully  carried  out  by  the  Pittsburg 
and  Allegheny  Kindergarten  Association.  Still  others 
organized  to  undertake  a  work  supplementary  to  that  of 
the  school,  whether  or  not  the  kindergarten  was  included 
in  the  school  system.  Such  was  the  purpose  for  which 
the  two  associations  in  San  Francisco  were  formed. 
Many  of  the  associations  formed  in  the  early  eighties  are 
still  in  existence,  although  as  a  result  of  changed  conditions 
their  work  has  changed  materially. 

Kindergarten  associations  had  been  organized  in  a  few 
cities  before  1880,  but  the  decade  between  1880  and  1890 
may  appropriately  be  called  the  Association  Decade  in 
kindergarten  history.  Such  associations  had  been  or- 
ganized in  Milwaukee  in  1870,  and  the  establishment  of 
kindergartens  in  the  three  German-English  academies  of 
that  city  was  the  result  of  their  effort.     As  far  as  can  be 


PERIOD  OF  extension;    associations  and  clubs    57 

learned,  California  was  the  next  to  organize  associations 
for  the  advancement  of  the  kindergarten  cause.  The 
San  Francisco  Public  Kindergarten  Society  was  formed 
in  1878,  and  the  Golden  Gate  Kindergarten  Association 
of  the  same  city  two  years  later.  The  Cincinnati  Kinder- 
garten Association  was  organized  in  1879,  and  the  Froebel 
Association  and  the  Free  Kindergarten  Association  of 
Chicago  in  1880.  From  that  date  on  kindergarten  associa- 
tions were  organized  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  country, 
as  nearly  as  can  be  learned,  in  the  following  order;  The 
Sub-Primary  School  Society  of  Philadelphia  in  1881 ; 
the  Des  Moines  Kindergarten  Association  in  1882;  the 
Indianapolis  Free  Kindergarten  and  Children's  Aid 
Society,  the  Milwaukee  Mission  Kindergarten  Association 
and  the  Kindergarten  Association  of  Portland,  Oregon, 
in  1884;  the  Los  Angeles  Kindergarten  Association  in 
1885;  the  Kindergarten  Association  of  St.  Paul,  Minn., 
of  Providence,  R.I.,  and  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  1886; 
the  Free  Kindergarten  Association  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  in 
1887 ;  the  Kindergarten  Association  of  Albany,  N.Y., 
and  of  New  Orleans,  La.,  in  1888 ;  the  New  York  Kinder- 
garten Association,  the  Detroit  Day  Nursery  and  Kinder- 
garten Association,  the  Denver,  Col.,  Kindergarten  As- 
sociation, and  the  Kindergarten  Association  of  Asheville, 
N.C.,  in  1889;  the  Kindergarten  Association  of  Grand 
Rapids,  Mich.,  and  that  of  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  in  1890; 
the  Kindergarten  Association  of  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  and  of 
Minneapolis,  Minn.,  in  189 1 ;  the  Kindergarten  Associa- 
tion of  Galveston,  Texas,  of  Charleston,  S.C.,  and   the 


58        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  Associations  in  1892 ;  the  Isabel 
Crow  Kindergarten  Association  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  the 
Kindergarten  Association  of  Spokane,  Wash.,  and  the 
Columbian  Kindergarten  Association  of  Washington, 
D.C.,  in  1893.  As  the  movement  progressed  other 
cities  too  numerous  to  mention  organized  similar  associa- 
tions. In  1897  the  Commissioner  of  Education  gave  a 
list  of  over  four  hundred,  and  stated  that  a  very  large 
number  of  others  had  failed  to  respond  to  the  request 
for  information. 

In  spite  of  the  differences  in  plan  and  purpose  already 
referred  to,  the  general  aims  of  the  kindergarten  associa- 
tions, wherever  located,  were  much  the  same.  These 
were  at  least  threefold :  to  furnish  helpful  suggestions 
to  young  mothers  in  meeting  the  problems  that  their  own 
children  presented ;  to  establish  kindergartens  and  thus 
to  advance  the  kindergarten  cause;  and  to  carry  out 
a  philanthropy  that  was  increasingly  felt  to  be  necessary. 
These  purposes  were  more  or  less  interwoven.  The 
study  of  childhood  from  the  standpoint  of  Froebel's 
philosophy  could  not  but  lead  to  a  higher  appreciation 
of  the  kindergarten,  and  a  desire  for  its  extension  and  the 
establishment  of  kindergartens  in  needy  districts  was  the 
most  effective  method  at  that  time  devised  to  carry  out 
the  desired  philanthropy.  The  work  of  a  kindergarten 
association,  therefore,  appealed  to  different  classes  of 
people  and  satisfied  several  different  interests.  Its  work 
was  shaped  by  these  interests,  though  one  phase  or  the 
other  usually   predominated. 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   associations  and  clubs    59 

Among  the  lines  of  work  carried  on,  the  mothers'  classes 
must  be  given  the  first  place.  The  serious  discussion  of 
the  fundamental  problems  of  motherhood  and  childhood 
from  the  viewpoint  of  Froebel  opened  up  a  new  world  of 
thought  to  many.  It  gave  a  new  meaning  to  life  and  led 
to  the  formation  of  higher  ideals  and  nobler  purposes. 
The  inspiration  that  the  kindergarten  association  gave  to 
thousands  of  young  mothers  was  one  of  the  reasons  for  its 
success.  But  this  was  not  all.  From  the  impulse  first 
given  by  kindergarten  associations  to  the  study  of  child- 
hood and  the  training  for  motherhood  have  come  move- 
ments of  national  importance.  The  growing  interest  in 
the  problems  of  child  training  led  to  the  holding  of  a 
Mothers'  Conference  in  Chicago  in  1894,  lasting  for  several 
days,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Chicago  Kindergarten 
College.  This  proved  so  valuable  that  several  similar 
conferences  have  been  held  since.  The  National  Con- 
gress of  Mothers,  which  held  its  first  meeting  in  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  in  1897,  was  the  indirect  outgrowth  of  the 
interest  thus  aroused.  Work  of  this  character,  whether  na- 
tional or  local,  could  not  but  lead  to  a  study  of  educational 
problems  from  other  viewpoints  than  that  of  the  home. 
It  brought  parents  and  teachers  together  for  the  discussion 
of  mutual  problems  and  enlarged  the  views  of  each.  The 
results  of  this  movement  and  the  women's  club  move- 
ment of  more  recent  years  have  given  to  American  women 
an  insight  into  educational  problems  that  has  done  much 
to  further  the  interests  of  education  in  the  school. 

The  deepening  insight  into  the  problems  of  childhood 


6o        THE    KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

to  which  the  mothers'  study  classes  gave  rise  during  the 
early  years  of  the  kindergarten  movement  was  the  founda- 
tion for  the  enthusiasm  with  which  the  second  purpose 
of  the  kindergarten  association  —  the  establishment  of 
kindergartens  —  was  carried  on.  The  whole  kindergarten 
movement  in  Chicago  has  grown  out  of  a  class  formed  by 
Mrs.  Alice  H.  Putnam  in  1874  for  the  study  of  Froebel. 
The  class  grew  into  a  kindergarten  association  whose  two 
hundred  members  were  "all  intelligent  students  of  the 
kindergarten  philosophy  and  practice."  An  acquaintance 
with  the  practical  working  of  a  "mission  kindergarten" 
would  not  fail  to  give  these  early  students  a  new  insight 
into  the  meaning  of  the  kindergarten  as  an  institution  and 
lead  them  to  place  a  higher  estimate  upon  its  principles. 
It  could  not  but  stimulate  an  interest  in  the  kindergarten 
as  such,  its  success  elsewhere  and  its  ultimate  adoption 
by  the  school.  It  invited  comparison  between  the  methods 
of  the  kindergarten  and  those  of  the  school,  and  thus  gave 
an  added  impetus  to  the  influences  that  were  already 
tending  toward  its  transformation. 

The  acquaintance  with  the  work  of  mission  kinder- 
gartens for  which  the  kindergarten  association  gave  the 
opportunity  had  other  results  of  an  entirely  different 
character  but  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  develop- 
ment of  American  womanhood  and  the  ideals  of  American 
life.  The  general  public  of  the  early  eighties  was  not  so 
familiar  with  the  story  of  poverty  in  the  large  cities  as  it 
has  since  become,  and  the  contact  with  poverty-stricken 
childhood,  incompetent  motherhood,  and  homes  that  were 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   associations  and  clubs    6 1 

hardly  such  even  in  name  brought  to  many  women  a  reve- 
lation of  existing  social  conditions  that  was  nothing  less 
than  startling.  "The  story  of  the  slum  was  beginning  to 
be  told,"  but  its  significance  had  not  been  realized.  The 
stirrings  of  the  "social  movement"  were  beginning  to  be 
felt,  however,  and  the  desire  to  know  "how  the  other  half 
lives"  was  awakening.  No  adequate  agencies  had  existed, 
however,  by  which  that  desire  could  be  gratified,  — 
slumming  parties  belonging  to  a  later  date,  —  and  no 
satisfactory  means  had  seemed  to  be  at  hand  to  relieve 
the  conditions  which  were  said  to  exist.  The  kinder- 
garten association  seemed  therefore  to  meet  the  need  of 
the  hour.  It  afforded  opportunity  in  part  for  the  ac- 
quaintance with  conditions  that  must  precede  intelligent 
effort  for  relief,  and  furnished  an  agency  by  which  an 
amelioration  of  some  of  the  conditions  could  be  effected. 
An  idea  of  this  phase  of  association  work  can  be  gained 
from  the  following  description  by  Miss  Constance 
Mackenzie  of  work  done  in  Philadelphia  during  the 
early  years  of  the  kindergarten  movement. 

"The  touch  of  the  kindergarten  upon  the  home  had 
a  humanizing  effect  which  appeared  nothing  short  of 
remarkable.  One  short  street,  at  that  time  reputed  to  be 
among  the  worst  in  the  city,  was  in  some  respects  practi- 
cally transformed  by  the  home  visits  and  the  reflex  in- 
fluence of  the  kindergarten  children.  At  the  time  when 
the  kindergarten  began  its  unobtrusive  cmsade  in  that 
neighborhood,  to  walk  through  the  street  meant  to  invite 
an  assault  upon  four  of  the  five  senses,  as  well  as  upon 


62        THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

one's  sense  of  decency.  The  place  and  the  people  were 
filthy ;  the  conversation  was  unfit  to  listen  to ;  the  odors 
were  appalling.  By  and  by,  however,  a  change  became 
noticeable.  The  newspapers,  apologetic  substitutes  for 
glass,  disappeared  from  many  broken  window-panes,  and 
old  cans,  sweet  with  green  things  growing,  took  their 
places.  Chairs  were  cleaned  when  'teacher'  was  an- 
nounced, and  by  and  by  the  rooms  were  kept  brushed  up 
to  greet  her  unexpected  coming.  After  a  while  the 
children's  work,  first  discarded  as  trash,  began  to  assume 
an  extrinsic  value  —  the  walls  must  be  fresh  to  receive  it. 
The  children  insisted  upon  clean  clothes  to  be  worn  to 
kindergarten,  and  a  general  if  dingy  wash  followed.  In 
the  evening  fathers  found  a  sufficient  entertainment  in 
the  children's  singing  to  keep  them  home  from  the  grog 
shop;  then  the  beer  money  was  diverted,  and  found  its 
way  to  the  Penny  Savings'  Fund,  through  the  child's 
little  bankbook.  The  street  people  began  to  hush  their 
talk  as  the  kindergartner  or  the  neighborhood  visitor  went 
by.  The  kindergarten  children  could  be  distinguished 
in  the  street,  singing  the  songs  and  playing  the  games, 
and  so  potent  was  the  effect  of  their  small  public  opinion 
that  their  refusal  to  enter  into  the  coarser  street  romps 
with  the  non-kindergartners  brought  many  a  child  into 
the  kindergarten  who  had  been  wont  to  stand  at  the  door 
to  hoot  and  run.  Lessons  of  cleanliness,  thrift,  and  trust 
were  learned  through  experience  and  communicated  to 
the  homes  through  the  insistence  of  the  children  and  the 
friendly  home  talks  of  the   kindergartners.    The  early 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   associations  and  clubs    63 

stony  indifference  of  the  parents  gave  way  to  mild  curiosity 
as  to  'what  the  kindergartner  would  do  next.'  This 
melted  into  astonishment  that  she  could  make  Johnny 
mind  without  using  the  strap.  Then  followed  interest 
in  John's  gentler  manner,  compunction  over  his  uncon- 
scious condemnation  of  the  mother's  way  of  doing  things, 
and  a  shamefaced  determination  to  do  as  'the  kindergar- 
ten teacher  did,'  until  a  new  atmosphere  pervaded  many 
a  home  which  at  first  sight  had  seemed  irredeemable." 

The  face-to-face  contact  with  social  conditions  which 
the  work  of  a  kindergarten  association  thus  occasioned 
could  not  fail  to  awaken  new  interest  and  shape  action  in 
new  directions.  As  the  child  study  work  had  led  associa- 
tion members  into  the  field  of  general  education  and  to  an 
acquaintance  with  the  leaders  of  educational  thought, 
so  the  first-hand  acquaintance  with  the  problems  of  pov- 
erty led  to  a  study  of  sociological  literature  and  to  a 
cooperation  with  philanthropists  and  social  reformers. 
The  interests  thus  developed  have  contributed  materially 
to  the  growth  of  the  social  movement  and  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  philanthropy.  Women  have  played  no 
small  part  in  the  establishment  of  the  newer  forms  of 
philanthropic  work  of  the  preventive  and  constructive 
kind,  such  as  vacation  schools,  playgrounds,  and  social 
settlements.  The  kindergarten  association  was  in  fact 
a  social  settlement  in  embryo,  and  the  kindergarten  as 
such  forms  one  of  the  chief  agencies  in  the  social  settle- 
ment as  it  now  exists. 

The  practical  work  for  which  a  kindergarten  associa- 


64        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

tion  was  organized  could  not  be  adequately  carried  on 
without  the  organization  and  maintenance  of  a  training 
school  from  which  its  supply  of  kindergarten  workers 
could  be  recruited.  The  successful  management  of 
a  mission  kindergarten  demanded  a  kindergartner  of 
experience  and  more  than  ordinary  ability,  but  young 
women  without  previous  experience  or  training  and  of 
a  lesser  degree  of  ability  could  serve  in  the  capacity  of 
assistants.  The  novelty  and  interest  of  the  work  led 
many  young  women  to  offer  themselves  as  candidates  for 
kindergarten  training  in  the  early  days,  not  alone  such  as 
hoped  to  find  in  kindergartning  the  means  of  gaining 
a  livelihood,  but  those  who  undertook  the  work  from 
philanthropic  motives  only,  and  who  expected  no  re- 
muneration for  their  services.  The  work  of  the  training 
course  shaped  itself  to  meet  these  conditions.  Since 
workers  were  needed  in  the  kindergartens  and  practical 
experience  with  the  children  must  necessarily  constitute  an 
important  part  of  the  training,  the  candidates  were  as- 
signed to  actual  work  in  the  kindergarten  from  the  time 
that  they  entered  the  course,  and  continued  such  work 
until  it  was  finished.  This  necessitated  the  placing  of  all 
the  studies  of  the  course  in  the  afternoon  and  in  placing 
the  emphasis  upon  the  technical  ones,  —  the  mother  plays, 
and  the  gifts  and  occupations.  As  the  main  purpose  of 
these  studies  was  to  meet  the  immediate  needs  of  the 
students  in  their  work  with  the  children,  the  work  was  of 
necessity  fragmentary.  As  kindergarten  training  schools 
grew,  instruction  in  music  and  drawing  was  added ;  later, 


PERIOD   OF   extension;     ASSOCIATIONS    AND   CLUBS      65 

courses  in  nature  study,  physical  culture,  and  story-telling 
were  introduced  and,  later  still,  courses  in  psychology, 
literature,   and   other  subjects. 

The  establishment  of  kindergarten  training  departments 
in  normal  schools  and  other  institutions  in  recent  years 
has  opened  up  a  whole  series  of  questions  concerning  the 
organization  of  kindergarten  training  courses.  From 
the  standpoint  of  pedagogical  principle  the  apprentice 
form  of  training,  which  the  exigencies  of  a  kindergarten 
association  necessitated,  cannot  be  defended,  and  it  has 
of  late  received  no  little  criticism.  The  training  of  this 
character  was  the  only  form  of  training  to  be  had  until 
recently,  however,  as  the  private  training  schools  were 
organized  upon  the  same  basis.  What  the  instruction  in 
such  schools  lacked  in  scholarship,  however,  it  made  up 
in  other  respects.  Judged  by  the  spirit  of  the  kinder- 
gartner  toward  childhood  and  her  skill  in  meeting  its 
problems;  by  her  enthusiasm  for  the  cause  under  whose 
banner  she  had  enlisted ;  and  by  her  spirit  of  helpfulness 
toward  those  who  needed  help,  the  training  was  successful 
in  its  highest  sense.  The  young  women  who  took  the 
training  found  in  it  both  inspiration  and  help.  It  im- 
pressed upon  them  the  need  and  value  of  preparation  for 
motherhood,  and  the  necessity  for  courses  in  domestic 
science  and  child  study  in  women's  colleges.  The  train- 
ing received  in  the  association  training  schools  was  an 
indirect  training  in  philanthropy,  and  impressed  the 
students  with  their  moral  obligation  to  chi'dhood  and  to 
the  community.     That  the  work  was  felt  to  be  valuable 


66        THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

is  shown  by  the  fact  that  many  schools,  organized  originally 
to  meet  local  needs,  outgrew  these  and  attained  a  wide 
reputation.  Students  came  from  enlarging  areas,  and 
graduates  from  the  larger  schools  may  be  found  in  nearly 
every  state  in  the  union.  The  names  of  Mrs.  Alice  H. 
Putnam,  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin,  Patty  S.  Hill,  Caroline 
M.  C.  Hart,  Mrs.  Eliza  A.  Blaker,  and  many  others, 
superintendents  of  kindergarten  associations  and  principals 
of  association  training  schools,  are  known  to  every  kinder- 
gartner   in   the   land. 

In  building  up  kindergarten  sentiment  throughout  the 
country  perhaps  no  one  person  has  done  more  than  Mrs. 
Kate  Douglas  Wiggin,  and  the  work  of  no  kindergarten 
associations  is  better  known  that  that  of  the  two  San 
Francisco  associations  identified  respectively  with  the 
names  of  Mrs.  Wiggin  and  Mrs.  Sarah  B.  Cooper,  now 
deceased.  The  kindergarten  had  gained  a  foothold  in 
Los  Angeles  in  1875.  One  of  the  first  young  women  to 
take  a  kindergarten  course  was  Kate  Douglas  Smith, 
now  known  the  world  over  as  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin. 
When  in  1878  the  San  Francisco  Kindergarten  Society 
was  organized,  Miss  Smith  was  called  to  take  the  leader- 
ship. "That  interest  in  the  kindergarten  grew  under 
the  direction  of  this  gifted  leader  was  but  natural,"  says 
Miss  Fisher  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion. "No  single  individual  has  done  more  to  spread 
kindergarten  influence  and  to  gain  friends  for  the  cause 
than  the  author  of  *  The  Story  of  Patsy.'  No  kindergarten 
has  enjoyed  a  wider  celebrity  and  achieved  greater  success 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   associations  and  clubs    67 

among  the  children  and  in  their  homes  than  the  celebrated 
Silver  Street  Kindergarten,  conducted  by  Mrs.  Wiggin 
and  her  sister,  Nora  A.  Smith.  The  work  done  at  Silver 
Street  v^^as  the  mainspring  of  all  subsequent  work  in 
California." 

The  work  so  auspiciously  begun  by  Mrs.  Wiggin  was 
the  stimulus  to  the  organization  of  the  Golden  Gate 
Kindergarten  Association,  identified  in  the  public  mind 
with  the  name  of  its  founder  and  president,  Mrs.  Sarah  B. 
Cooper.  Mrs.  Cooper  was  a  woman  of  rare  power  and 
influence,  who  had  been  identified  with  every  phase  of 
philanthropic  work,  but  whose  great  mission  —  "to  lay 
the  foundation  for  a  better  national  character  by  founding 
free  kindergartens  for  neglected  children"  —  was  re- 
vealed to  her  by  a  single  morning's  visit  to  the  Silver 
Street  Kindergarten.  Under  her  auspices  a  kindergarten 
was  organized  and  was  supported  by  the  members  of  her 
Bible  class.  As  the  work  grew,  the  association  con- 
nected with  her  name  was  formed.  Her  influence  brought 
legacies  and  donations  from  many  sources.  No  phil- 
anthropic association  has  supported  so  many  kinder- 
gartens or  expended  so  much  money.  The  first  legacy 
of  $20,000  was  followed  by  an  endowment  fund  of  $100,000 
from  Mrs.  Leland  Stanford,  who  later  contributed  $20,000 
more.  Mrs.  Phoebe  A.  Hearst  was  equally  generous. 
In  1891,  $30,000  was  contributed  to  this  association  alone; 
in  I  goo  it  was  estimated  that  the  association  had  received 
in  legacies  and  donations  not  less  than  $500,000.  At 
the  time  of  its  greatest  prosperity  it  supported   forty-four 


68        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

kindergartens,  and  at  the  time  of  Mrs.  Cooper's  death, 
in  1896,  it  had  conferred  its  benefits  upon  eighteen  thou- 
sand children.  The  effect  of  such  work  upon  the  educa- 
tional tone  of  California  is  incalculable. 

The  work  of  kindergarten  associations  in  illustrating 
kindergarten  ideals  and  methods,  in  organizing  an 
effective  means  for  the  moral  salvation  of  neglected  child- 
hood, and  in  securing  the  incorporation  of  the  kinder- 
garten into  the  school  system,  has  been  admirably  sup- 
plemented by  the  efforts  of  individuals  in  different  parts  of 
the  country.  The  work  of  some  of  these  antedated  the 
foundation  of  all  but  the  earliest  kindergarten  associa- 
tions, and  doubtless  stimulated  their  formation  and  growth. 
The  first  charity  kindergarten  in  the  United  States  was 
established  in  1870,  as  has  been  stated,  in  connection  with 
the  Poppenhausen  Institution  at  College  Point,  New  York. 
The  kindergartners  employed  were  trained  in  Germany, 
and  the  provision  was  the  most  liberal  in  every  way.  In 
1874  Mr.  S.  H.  Hill,  of  Florence,  Mass.,  contributed 
funds  to  open  a  charity  kindergarten  and  later  placed 
in  trust  a  sum  sufficient  to  sustain  and  extend  the  work. 
The  largest  and  most  significant  individual  charity  in 
behalf  of  the  kindergarten  cause  was  that  supported  by 
Mrs.  Pauline  Agassiz  Shaw  of  Boston,  the  daughter  of 
Louis  Agassiz.  Having  opened  two  kindergartens  during 
the  summer  of  1877,  and  having  satisfied  herself  of  their 
value,  Mrs.  Shaw  concluded  that  the  kindergarten  cause 
needed  her  support.  "This  was  the  beginning  of  a  work 
unparalleled  for  public  spirit  and  liberality  and  to  which 


PERIOD  OF  extension;     ASSOCIATIONS   AND   CLUBS      69 

must  be  attributed  the  growth  and  final  adoption  of  the 
kindergarten  throughout  New  England,"  says  Miss  Fisher. 
Under  the  guidance  of  Miss  Laliah  B.  Pingree,  and  sup- 
ported by  Mrs.  Shaw's  UberaUty,  the  kindergartens  grew 
and  prospered  and  became  a  power  in  the  community. 
In  1883  Mrs.  Shaw  supported  thirty-one  kindergartens  in 
Boston,  Cambridge,  and  BrookUne.  No  effort  was 
spared  to  make  these  kindergartens  the  best  of  their  kind. 
Through  lectures  by  specialists  on  many  subjects  the 
kindergartners  were  provided  with  opportunities  for 
advanced  study.  After  supporting  these  kindergartens 
for  ten  years,  Mrs.  Shaw  invited  the  school  board  of  Boston 
to  investigate  their  value  and  to  consider  their  adoption 
into  the  public  schools.  As  they  had  shown  their  value 
with  the  children,  the  board  assumed  the  responsibility, 
and  in  1888  kindergartens  became  an  integral  part  of  the 
Boston  public  school  system.  The  report  of  the  Boston 
School  Committee  says:  "The  wise  and  far-sighted 
generosity  of  these  public-spirited  women  deserves  to 
place  them  among  the  greatest  benefactors  of  our  schools. 
The  school  board  has  especially  conveyed  to  them  its 
grateful  appreciation  of  their  noble  work,  and  the  com- 
munity which  receives  the  benefit  of  all  that  they  have 
accomplished  should  hold  their  memory  in  lasting  regard." 
This  in  substance  is  the  story  of  the  kindergarten  in  Bos- 
ton, as  told  by  Miss  Fanny  L.  Johnson,  in  The  Kinder- 
garten Review. 

The  city  of  Washington  has  also  profited  by  the  public 
spirit  of  a   noble   woman.     Kindergarten  effort   at   the 


yo        THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

national  capital  dates  back  to  the  early  years  of  the  move- 
ment, but  it  has  received  special  reenforcement  during 
the  last  decade  of  the  century  through  the  generosity  of 
Mrs.  Phcebe  A.  Hearst.  The  introduction  of  the  kinder- 
garten into  the  Washington  public  schools  is  the  result 
of  two  influences,  —  that  of  Mrs.  Louisa  Mann,  daughter- 
in-law  of  the  great  educator,  and  that  of  the  Columbian 
Kindergarten  Association,  organized  in  1893  for  the 
purpose  of  inducing  Congress  to  effect  legislation  to  that 
end.  Mrs.  Hearst,  Mrs.  Cleveland,  and  several  other 
prominent  women  were  active  members  of  this  associa- 
tion, and  it  was  in  connection  with  it  that  Mrs.  Hearst's 
greatest  gift  to  the  kindergarten  cause  was  made.  Her 
donations  to  the  cause  had  already  been  scattered  far  and 
wide.  Seven  of  the  kindergartens  of  the  Golden  Gate 
Kindergarten  Association  of  San  Francisco,  and  many 
others  in  other  western  states,  were  supported  by  her. 
Among  her  gifts  to  San  Francisco  was  a  perfectly  equipped 
building  for  training  purposes.  Her  principal  gift  to 
Washington  was  a  training  school,  opened  in  1897.  The 
home  of  this  school  was  described  by  a  recent  writer  as 
attractive  and  artistic.  It  had  an  excellent  reference 
library,  and  the  course  of  training  was  supplemented  by 
lectures  given  by  the  best  specialists  in  the  country.  As 
these  lectures  were  open  to  the  kindergartners  of  the  city, 
as  well  as  to  the  students  in  training,  the  school  became 
the  center  of  kindergarten  interest  in  Washington.  Mrs. 
Hearst  was  obliged  to  withdraw  her  support  from  the 
undertaking  in  1905,  but  the  results  remain. 


PERIOD  OF  EXTENSION;     ASSOCIATIONS   AND  CLUBS      71 

Although  these  contributions  to  the  kindergarten  cause 
are  doubtless  the  most  notable  ones,  many  a  city  in  the 
land  can  point  to  evidences  of  contributions  as  generous 
in  proportion  to  the  donor's  means.  Some  of  these  dona- 
tions have  been  made  independently,  v/hile  others  have 
been  made  in  connection  with  kindergarten  associations, 
churches,  or  charitable  organizations.  The  William  N. 
Jackson  Memorial  Building,  the  permanent  home  of  the 
Indianapolis  Free  Kindergarten  Association,  vi^as  a  gift 
to  the  cause.  Beautiful  buildings  for  kindergarten 
purposes  have  been  contributed  to  the  cause  also  in 
Asheville,  N.C.,  in  Youngstown,  Ohio,  and  in  Spokane, 
Wash.  In  Topeka,  Kan.,  a  building  for  kindergarten 
purposes  w^as  given  to  a  church  which  had  organized  and 
supported  a  kindergarten  and  training  school.  Memorial 
and  endowed  kindergartens  are  by  no  means  uncommon. 
In  1903  Mrs.  Leland  Stanford  supported  six  memorial 
kindergartens  in  San  Francisco.  The  endowment  fund 
of  nearly  $200,000  which  Mrs.  Stanford  contributed  to 
the  Golden  Gate  Kindergarten  Association  has  already 
been  mentioned.  "A  generous  friend  of  the  children," 
who  did  not  wish  his  name  mentioned,  recently  gave 
$75,000  as  an  endowment  fund  for  the  Brooklyn  Kinder- 
garten Society.  These  instances  are  given  as  illustrations 
of  what  people  of  wealth  and  character  have  thought  it 
worth  while  to  do  for  the  kindergarten  movement. 

Similar  in  general  character  to  the  work  done  for  the 
kindergarten  movement  by  kindergarten  associations  and 
individuals  has  been  the  work  done  by  women's  clubs. 


72        THE  KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

Elizabeth  Peabody,  the  apostle  of  the  kindergarten  move- 
ment, was  a  member  of  the  New  England  Woman's  Club, 
the  first  club  of  the  kind  organized  in  the  United  States, 
and  at  one  of  the  earliest  meetings  presented  the  kinder- 
garten as  a  topic  in  which  women  should  be  fundamentally 
interested.  Many  other  women  prominent  in  kinder- 
garten circles  have  been  equally  prominent  in  club  organi- 
zation and  club  effort.  Miss  Annie  Laws,  who  was  for 
two  years  the  president  of  the  International  Kindergarten 
Union,  was  at  the  same  time  an  officer  of  the  General 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs.  Many  clubs  l^ve  made 
a  study  of  the  kindergarten  and  others  have  taxen  the  re- 
sponsibility of  kindergarten  organization  and  support, 
either  independently  or  in  connection  with  kindergarten 
associations.  Many  facts  of  interest  pertaining  to  the 
work  of  particular  clubs  might  be  cited.  The  kindergar- 
ten established  by  the  Woman's  Club  of  Chicago  was 
declared  to  be  "the  nurse  and  feeder  of  the  intellectual 
and  practical  life  of  the  club."  The  organization  of  the 
General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  has  been  a  great 
stimulus  to  work  of  this  character,  and  the  systematic 
study  of  the  whole  field  of  education  by  that  great  body 
promises  much  for  the  newer  movements  in  education  in 
the  near  future.  Mrs.  Henrotin's  report  to  the  National 
Educational  Association  in  1897  on  "What  Women's 
Clubs  have  done  for  Education"  contains  some  interesting 
data.  She  reports  kindergartens  as  having  been  estab- 
lished in  several  cities  through  the  agency  of  women's 
clubs,  and  systematic  action  having  been  taken  to  acquaint 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   associations  and  clubs    73 

the  uninitiated  among  club  members  with  the  principles 
which  underlie  kindergarten  procedure.  The  last  object 
was  accomplished  at  one  state  federation  meeting  by  the 
setting  apart  of  a  day  for  the  visiting  of  the  kindergartens, 
and  following  this  by  a  discussion  of  their  value.  In 
New  Jersey,  kindergartens  were  organized  and  supported 
through  the  agency  of  women's  clubs  until  the  school 
boards  were  sufficiently  convinced  of  their  value  to  adopt 
them  as  a  part  of  the  school  system.  The  women's  clubs 
of  the  District  of  Columbia  appointed  a  committee  to 
present  to  both  houses  of  Congress  a  bill  to  make  the 
incorporation  of  kindergartens  into  the  school  system 
possible.  This  has  since  been  accomplished.  In  Colo- 
rado the  adoption  of  the  kindergarten  into  the  school 
system  of  several  cities  has  been  effected  through  club 
agency.  In  Arkansas  the  State  Federation  has  worked 
in  connection  with  the  State  Kindergarten  Association 
to  secure  the  establishment  of  a  kindergarten  training 
school  supported  by  the  state.  In  Beloit,  Wis.,  kinder- 
gartens were  established  and  supported  by  the  Woman's 
Club  until  the  school  authorities  were  ready  to  adopt 
them.  The  Woman's  Club  of  Houston,  Texas,  has 
carried  on  a  kindergarten  for  several  years.  Within  the 
past  few  years  the  Southern  Federation  of  Colored  Women, 
of  which  Mrs.  Booker  T.  Washington  was  then  president, 
adopted  the  kindergarten  as  the  chief  line  of  work  and 
study.  In  1902  the  colored  Women's  Clubs  of  Chicago 
organized  kindergartens  in  several  different  sections  of 
the  city,  locating  them  in  the  colored  churches.     At  least 


74        THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

nine  kindergartens  were  thus  established  and  supported. 
Whatever  its  immediate  prospects  the  kindergarten  move- 
ment may  certainly  hope  for  ultimate  success,  having  such 
allies  as  the  National  Council  of  Women,  the  National 
Congress  of  Mothers,  and  the  General  Federation  of 
Women's   Clubs. 

The  value  of  these  efforts  of  associations,  clubs,  and  in- 
dividuals can  hardly  be  overestimated.  In  an  editorial  in 
The  Kindergarten  Magazine,  when  there  were  but  seventy- 
five  kindergarten  associations.  Miss  Amalie  Hofer  said: 
"There  are  seventy-five  thoroughly  organized  kinder- 
garten associations  in  our  states,  all  existing  for  the  purposes 
of  further  study,  for  extending  the  work  in  new  fields,  or 
maintaining  its  sincerity  in  old  fields.  Some  of  these 
associations  comprise  prominent  citizens  who  lend  their 
influence  and  money  to  the  movement ;  others  are  com- 
posed of  kindergartners  and  teachers  who  meet  under  the 
Froebel  banner  for  self-education ;  others  consist  of  groups 
of  earnest  parents  who  are  aiming  to  create  public  interest 
in  this  vital  work  of  child  training.  These  working  centers 
form  a  network  from  city  to  city  across  our  continent. 
The  self-appointed  stewards  of  the  new  education  are  a 
thoroughly  organized  force,  six  thousand  strong,  pledged 
to  a  modern  reformation.  The  seventy-five  officered 
kindergarten  associations  form  a  ganglia  of  vitalizing 
centers  throughout  our  country  and  constitute  what  we 
name  the  kindergarten  movement.  These  centers,  each 
of  which  is  illumined  by  the  dedicated  lives  of  strong, 
earnest,  aggressive  women,  push  their  energies  in  many 


PERIOD  OF  EXTENSION;     ASSOCIATIONS   AND   CLUBS      75 

directions."  The  number  of  kindergarten  associations 
has  muhipHed  many  times,  and  much  has  been  accom- 
phshed  for  the  kindergarten  cause  since  these  words  were 
written.  Women's  organizations  have  done  much  to 
further  the  kindergarten  movement,  but  other  agencies 
still  have  contributed  to  its  growth.  The  service  that  they 
have  rendered  will  be  discussed  in  succeeding  chapters. 


CHAPTER  VI 

The  Period  of  Extension;    The  Kindergarten  in 
Church,  Sunday  School,  and  Mission  Work 

It  is  no  small  testimony  to  the  many-sidedness  of  the 
kindergarten  that  organizations  differing  widely  in  aim  and 
character  should  have  adopted  the  kindergarten  as  an 
agency  for  the  furthering  of  their  own  particular  aims. 
That  the  church  should  consider  it  a  valuable  means  of 
carrying  on  its  own  work ;  that  the  temperance  workers 
should  hold  it  well-nigh  indispensable;  and  that  business 
firms  should  consider  it  a  valuable  phase  of  their  welfare 
work,  —  these  things  cannot  but  surprise  the  uninitiated. 
Each  of  the  agencies  named  has  adopted  the  kindergarten 
to  some  extent,  and  has  thereby  become  unconsciously 
a  kindergarten  propagandist.  That  kindergartners  and 
kindergarten  associations  should  advocate  the  kinder- 
garten cause  is  not  surprising.  The  acceptance  of  the 
kindergarten  by  the  above-named  agencies  was,  however, 
unlooked-for  testimony  to  its  value,  and  an  unsolicited 
aid  in  acquainting  the  public  with  its  principles. 

Among  the  first  of  the  above-named  agencies  to  adopt  the 
kindergarten  was  the  church.  One  of  the  first  churches 
of  the  country  to  adopt  the  kindergarten,  if  not  the  first, 
was  Trinity  Church  of  Toledo,  Ohio,  which  in    1877  es- 

76 


PERIOD   OF  EXTENSION;     CHURCH   WORK,   ETC.         77 

tablished  a  kindergarten  as  a  part  of  its  parish  work. 
The  Anthon  Memorial  Church  of  New  York  City,  of  which 
the  Rev.  R.  Heber  Newton  was  pastor,  estabHshed  a  kin- 
dergarten in  1878,  and  the  work  done  under  its  auspices 
is  a  striking  example  of  what  a  church  may  accomplish 
through  kindergarten  agency.  While  the  adoption  of  the 
kindergarten  by  the  church  was  slow  during  the  early  years, 
the  movement  was  steady  and  quiet,  as  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  during  the  next  decade  kindergartens  were  es- 
tablished in  several  important  foreign  mission  stations. 
The  Golden  Gate  Kindergarten  Association  of  San 
Francisco,  organized  in  1880,  had  its  origin  in  a  kinder- 
garten supported  by  a  Bible  class  connected  with  the 
Howard  Presbyterian  Church,  under  the  leadership  of 
Mrs.  Sarah  B.  Cooper;  and  from  that  time  on,  until  her 
death  in  1896,  Mrs.  Cooper  was  one  of  the  strongest 
advocates  of  this  phase  of  church  work.  The  kinder- 
garten has  become  an  accepted  agency  in  the  institutional 
church,  as  it  has  in  the  social  settlement  which  is  akin  to 
it,  and  the  increase  in  the  number  of  institutional  churches 
has  in  a  measure  marked  the  increasing  number  of  church 
kindergartens.  There  are  many  churches  that  support 
kindergartens  which  are  not  strictly  institutional,  but  as 
a  rule  the  two  go  hand  in  hand. 

That  the  kindergarten  has  become  an  agency  in  church 
and  mission  work,  and  that  kindergarten  principles  are 
being  accepted  and  applied  in  the  Sunday  school,  is  gen- 
erally known,  but  little  is  known  concerning  the  extent  to 
which  it  has  been  thus  adopted.     In  the  list  of  over  four 


78        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

hundred  kindergarten  associations  already  referred  to, 
over  sixty  are  church  associations.  This  does  not,  how- 
ever, indicate  the  number  of  church  kindergartens.  In 
the  same  report,  confessed  as  inadequate,  since  "a  very 
great  number  of  associations  failed  to  respond  to  the  re- 
quest for  information,"  Dr.  Harris  states  that  at  least  three 
thousand  kindergartens  not  supported  by  public  school 
funds  are  known  to  be  in  existence,  although  but  about 
half  of  that  number  replied  to  the  circular  sent  out.  In  a 
list  of  kindergartens  compiled  by  Miss  Clara  Louise 
Anderson  in  1903,  inadequate  also  for  similar  reasons, 
the  kindergartens  not  supported  by  public  funds  are 
divided  into  two  nearly  equal  classes,  those  that  are  private 
in  the  sense  that  tuition  is  charged  or  that  they  are  intended 
for  a  given  class  of  children  only ;  and  those  that  are  free, 
in  the  sense  of  being  charitable  or  missionary  in  character. 
Supposing  this  proportion  to  hold  in  regard  to  the  three 
thousand  mentioned,  there  must  be  nearly  fifteen  hundred 
of  the  mission  or  charitable  class.  There  is  no  known 
source  of  information  from  which  the  number  of  these 
supported  by  churches  can  be  inferred,  but  there  is  evidence 
that  three  hundred  would  be  a  conservative  estimate. 
A  little  definite  information  comes  from  Dr.  Josiah  Strong, 
of  the  American  Bureau  of  Social  Service.  He  admits 
that  "no  statistics  concerning  the  number  of  churches 
throughout  the  country  having  kindergartens  have  ever 
been  collected,"  but  states  that  there  are  fifty-four  such  in 
Greater  New  York,  twenty-seven  in  Philadelphia,  and 
twelve  in  Chicago.     A  recent  item  in  one  of  the  kinder- 


PERIOD  OF  extension;    church  work,  etc.       79 

garten  periodicals  states  that  there  are  ten  such  in  Louis- 
ville, Ky.  From  the  data  given  by  Dr.  Harris  and  Miss 
Anderson  it  appears  that  churches  in  fifty  or  more  cities 
support  kindergartens  as  a  part  of  their  church  work. 
Every  denomination  seems  represented,  —  the  Roman 
Catholic,  the  Lutheran,  the  Jewish,  the  Friends,  the 
Swedenborgian,  the  Unitarian,  and  the  Christian  Scientist, 
as  well  as  the  better  known  Protestant  denominations,  such 
as  the  Methodist,  Baptist,  Congregational,  and  Presby- 
terian. The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  seems  to  be  in 
the  lead  in  the  number  of  churches  supporting  kinder- 
gartens. Among  the  conspicuous  examples  of  churches 
carrying  on  such  work  are :  the  Anthon  Memorial  Church, 
already  mentioned ;  St.  Bartholomew's  Protestant  Epis- 
copal, and  the  Manhattan  Congregational  of  New  York 
City;  the  Every  Day  Church  of  Boston;  the  Central 
Church  of  Topeka,  Kan. ;  and  the  People's  Church  of 
Kalamazoo,  Mich.  Of  special  interest  is  a  Chinese 
Presbyterian  Mission  Church  in  New  York  City  that  sup- 
ports a  flourishing  kindergarten  for  Chinese  children. 

The  auxiliary  organizations  of  the  church,  such  as  the 
Young  People's  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor,  or  such 
organizations  as  the  King's  Daughters  or  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association,  have  also  in  many  instances 
supported  kindergartens.  This  seems  to  have  been  a 
favorite  form  of  effort  for  bands  of  King's  Daughters  to 
undertake.  In  Peoria,  III.,  there  were  at  one  time  ten 
such  bands,  eight  of  which  directed  their  efforts  toward 
kindergarten    advancement.     In    Syracuse,    N.Y.,     the 


8o        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

Solvay  Guild  of  King's  Daughters  rendered  the  kinder- 
garten movement  effective  service.  Very  successful  work 
has  been  done  by  this  organization  also  in  Des  Moines, 
Iowa,  and  in  Knoxville,  Tenn.  In  Austin,  Texas,  a 
colored  band  of  King's  Daughters  did  admirable  work 
in  behalf  of  the  kindergarten.  There  are  doubtless  many 
other  places  where  such  work  has  been  done.  In  James- 
town, N.Y.,  in  Richmond,  Va.,  and  in  Lansing,  Mich.,  the 
kindergarten  movement  was  given  its  initial  impetus  by 
the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association.  In  Toledo, 
Ohio,  the  Unitarian  and  Episcopal  churches  at  one  time 
joined  hands  with  the  Women's  Christian  Temperance 
Union  and  the  local  kindergarten  workers  to  further 
the  movement.  In  Birmingham,  Ala.,  a  kindergarten  is 
supported  by  a  Young  Women's  Guild.  In  Detroit  a 
kindergarten  association  has  been  organized  by  the  Young 
Men's  Guild  of  St.  John's  Episcopal  Church.  May 
their  names  be  blazoned  abroad  and  their  example  widely 
followed.  In  1902  the  colored  women's  clubs  of  Chicago 
established  kindergartens  in  nine  of  the  colored  churches. 
In  Birmingham,  Ala.,  the  Baptist  churches  support  two 
kindergartens.  In  several  instances  the  work  inaugurated 
by  the  church  or  some  other  religious  organization  has  later 
been  adopted  by  the  public  school  authorities.  In  New 
Orleans  the  diocese  supported  a  kindergarten  and  kinder- 
garten training  school  for  five  years  until  the  school 
authorities  were  ready  to  assume  it.  In  Rochester,  N.Y., 
St.  Andrews  Church  for  several  years  likewise  supported  a 
kindergarten  and  training  school,  which  the  establishment 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   church  work,  etc.      8i 

of  kindergartens  in  the  public  schools  later  made  unneces- 
sary. The  kindergartens  of  Toledo,  Ohio,  became  a 
part  of  the  city  school  system  after  having  been  fostered 
for  several  years  by  religious  organizations.  In  James- 
town, N.Y.,  in  Kalamazoo,  Mich.,  and  doubtless  in  many 
other  places  public  school  kindergartens  owe  their  origin 
to  church  initiative. 

The  adoption  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  church  agency  will 
be  determined  largely  in  any  given  case  by  the  church's 
conception  of  its  mission  in  a  large  city.  *'In  a  city  there 
are  two  kinds  of  fields,"  says  the  Rev.  Edward  Judson  in 
his  book  "The  Institutional  Church."  "In  one  the  social 
current  seems  to  converge  in  favor  of  the  church.  Decent, 
Sunday-observing,  church-going  people  are  living  in  the 
neighborhood  and  all  you  have  to  do  is  to  throw  open  the 
doors  of  your  beautiful  church  and  the  people  flock  in  to 
hear  your  fine  preacher  and  your  artistic  music.  Their 
social  life  is  not  complete  without  a  pew  in  the  neighboring 
house  of  worship.  But  there  is  another  kind  of  field. 
Who  has  not  stood  aghast  and  felt  in  despair  as  he  has 
stopped  in  one  of  our  great  thoroughfares  and  watched 
the  great  tide  of  foreigners  streaming  ashore  from  some 
emigrant  ship ;  alien  men,  women,  and  children,  chattering 
in  a  strange  language,  and  bearing  uncouth  burdens  on 
their  heads  and  shoulders.  They  have  come  to  stay.  In 
solid  phalanx  they  take  possession  of  wide  stretches  of  our 
city.  They  form  an  impregnable  mass  of  humanity, 
swayed  by  un-American  ideas  and  habits.  Our  churches 
retreat  before  this  inflowing  tide.     But  if  our  aim  is  to 

G 


82        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

change  the  character  of  our  community,  then  we  should 
bring  to  bear  upon  these  masses  our  best  Gospel  appliances ; 
our  most  effective  measures  will  be  preventive  and  educa- 
tional, and  our  most  enduring  work  will  be  with  the 
children.  The  key  to  the  hard  problem  of  city  evangeli- 
zation lies  in  the  puny  hand  of  the  little  child."  Dr. 
Judson  speaks  further  of  the  Sunday  school  as  "the  church 
with  its  gearing  adapted  especially  to  work  with  little 
children,"  and  pays  high  tribute  to  its  power  of  reaching 
the  children  in  such  localities.  "But  the  Sunday  school 
alone  is  inadequate,"  he  continues.  "The  sessions  are  too 
short  and  too  far  apart.  Currents  of  sin  and  worldliness 
sweep  between  the  Sundays  and  wash  away  holy  impres- 
sions. What  headway  would  we  make  in  teaching  arith- 
metic or  geography  if  the  lesson  came  once  a  week,  occupied 
half  an  hour,  and  was  taught  by  such  incompetent,  un- 
trained, and  unpaid  teachers  as  are  to  be  found  in  our 
Sunday  school?  If  we  would  redeem  the  children  the 
church  must  have  her  day  school.  Let  her  have  a  kinder- 
garten which  will  embrace  children  from  three  to  seven. 
These  are  too  young  to  be  admitted  into  the  public  schools 
and  here  is  a  providential  opportunity  which  the  church 
has  of  gathering  them  into  her  fold  day  by  day.  Let  her 
employ  a  devout  and  trained  kindergartner  who  shall  not 
only  educate  the  child's  mind  and  body  with  the  charming 
symbolic  exercises  of  the  kindergarten,  but  will  tell  each 
day  a  little  of  the  story  of  the  life  of  Christ,  and  teach  the 
children  Christian  prayers  and  hymns." 
Views  similar  to  those  expressed  by  Dr.  Judson  have 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   church  work,  etc.      83 

been  voiced  by  Dr.  R.  Heber  Newton  and  others.  Dr. 
Newton  has  been  one  of  the  most  earnest  advocates  of  the 
kindergarten  as  a  church  agency.  His  faith  was  based 
upon  the  resuhs  accomplished  in  his  ovm  church.  Not 
only  was  the  effect  of  the  kindergarten  upon  the  children 
remarkable,  but  the  influence  of  the  kindergarten  was 
extended  and  deepened  by  means  of  a  training  class  and 
mothers'  meetings  until  it  was  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  helpful  means  of  building  up  the  church  and  the 
neighborhood.  The  social  settlement  has  found  the  kin- 
dergarten well-nigh  indispensable,  not  only  in  building  up 
character  in  the  children,  but  also  as  a  means  of  reaching 
homes  that  would  otherwise  be  closed,  and  of  bringing 
other  members  of  the  family  under  its  influence.  Had  the 
church  realized  its  social  mission  there  would  have  been 
little  need  of  settlements.  These  are  doing  what  the  church 
has  too  frequently  failed  to  do,  and  they  are  suggesting  ways 
and  methods  which  the  church  would  do  well  to  heed. 

But  the  kindergarten  has  a  value  not  alone  to  the  church 
of  the  kind  described,  but  to  the  church  on  the  avenue  of 
the  smaller  city.  Some  of  the  most  admirable  examples 
of  the  church  kindergarten  are  to  be  found  among  churches 
of  this  kind.  One  of  the  best  examples  of  the  kinder- 
garten in  church  work  is  to  be  found  in  Topeka,  Kan. 
The  Central  Congregational  Church  of  that  city  organized 
a  kindergarten  as  one  of  its  working  agencies  in  1892. 
In  discussing  the  step  taken  by  this  church  the  pastor, 
the  Rev.  Charles  W.  Sheldon,  said:  "When  we  consider 
the  value  to  a  church  of  work  done  for  children  by  holding 


84        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

their  growing  life  in  close  sympathy  with  church  life  and 
so  educate  future  supporters  of  the  church,  it  is  surprising 
that  the  kindergarten  has  not  found  its  way  more  quickly 
and  generally  into  church  activity.  That  this  lack  will 
soon  be  supplied  in  the  city  churches  at  least,  the  writer 
is  ready  to  predict  with  much  hopefulness."  In  describing 
the  work  of  this  kindergarten  for  The  Kindergarten  Review, 
Dr.  Sheldon  stated  further:  "An  auxiliary  composed  of 
ladies  of  the  neighborhood  managed  the  details  of  ex- 
pense. But  the  church  considers  the  kindergarten  as  her 
own  child,  and  is  as  much  in  touch  with  it  as  it  is  with  the 
Sunday  school  which  is  carried  on  in  the  same  room  on 
Sundays.  It  may  be  said  in  this  connection  that  all  the 
young  life  of  the  church,  the  Endeavor  Society  and  other 
organizations  like  it,  center  in  this  room  together  with  the 
prayer  circle  of  the  church,  and  thus  the  room  is  constantly 
used  and  permeated  with  the  spiritual  energy  which  stamps 
all  the  work  done  there  as  distinctly  and  distinctively 
Christian. 

"It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  value  to  a  church  of 
regular  kindergarten  work  carried  on  under  its  own  roof," 
continues  Dr.  Sheldon.  "The  stimulus  to  the  Sunday 
school,  to  the  home,  to  the  mothers,  to  every  part  of  the 
church  life,  is  instantly  and  continuously  felt.  It  is  the 
great  hope  and  prophecy  of  the  Central  Church  that  other 
churches  throughout  the  state  will  adopt  this  youngest 
child  of  Christian  education,  the  church  kindergarten. 
There  is  a  positive  advantage  to  any  church  to  have  its 
doors  open  every  day  of  the  week.     But  more  than  any- 


PERIOD   OF   extension;     CHURCH   WORK,   ETC.         85 

thing  else  is  the  immense  value  to  all  church  growth  and 
power  gained  from  the  daily  presence  within  its  walls  and 
surrounded  by  its  spiritual  atmosphere,  of  the  children  who 
are  the  hope  of  the  world  and  the  future  of  the  kingdom 
of  God." 

This  kindergarten  is  an  example  for  other  church  kinder- 
gartens in  many  respects.  It  has  a  model  room  of  its  own, 
a  gift  to  the  church  from  Mrs.  T.  E.  Bowman,  in  memory 
of  her  husband.  A  training  class  has  been  carried  on  with 
marked  success,  and  the  kindergarten  movement  in  the 
state  has  been  materially  advanced  by  the  work  it  has 
done.  The  Central  Congregational  Church  of  Dallas, 
Texas,  is  organizing  a  similar  work,  and  there  are  doubtless 
many  other  churches  that  could  tell  of  like  work  success- 
fully accomplished.  The  People's  Church  of  Kalamazoo, 
Mich.,  has  had  a  successful  kindergarten  in  operation  for 
several  years.  This  was  inaugurated  during  the  pastorate 
of  the  Rev.  Caroline  Bartlett  Crane,  and  under  her  leader- 
ship mothers'  meetings  were  held  and  well  attended.  A 
special  kindergarten  is  held  during  the  Sunday  morning 
service,  that  mothers  who  must  either  take  the  children  to 
church  or  remain  at  home  may  have  the  benefit  of  the 
service.  That  the  kindergarten  as  a  phase  of  church  work 
will  increase  in  the  near  future  can  no  longer  be  doubted. 
The  tendency  of  the  time  is  toward  the  establishment  of 
institutional  churches.  In  these  the  kindergarten  will 
occupy  an  increasingly  important  place. 

The  reconstruction  of  religious  thought  that  has  been 
taking  place  in  recent  years  has  been  discussed  in  a  pre- 


86        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

vious  chapter.  The  acceptance  of  rehgious  views  akin  to 
those  of  Froebel  and  the  growing  recognition  of  the  social 
mission  of  the  church  have  been  influences  tending  to  the 
adoption  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  church  agency.  But 
such  reconstruction  of  thought  has  done  more;  it  has 
revolutionized  views  and  methods  of  religious  instruction, 
and  therefore  affected  the  church's  main  agency  for  such 
instruction,  —  the  Sunday  school.  The  leaders  of  the 
kindergarten  movement  have  been  deeply  religious,  almost 
without  exception,  and  recognizing  that  existing  forms 
of  religious  instruction  were  at  variance  with  the  laws  of 
the  child's  spiritual  development,  have  from  the  beginning 
aimed  at  the  improvement  of  Sunday  school  methods. 
The  evidences  of  their  success  are  apparent  on  every  hand ; 
the  up-to-date  Sunday  school  now  has  either  a  kinder- 
garten department  for  children  of  kindergarten  age  or  a 
primary  department  conducted  externally  at  least  on  kin- 
dergarten principles.  That  the  kindergarten  Sunday  school 
or  the  Sunday  school  kindergarten  is  wholly  successful 
can  as  yet  hardly  be  claimed.  To  substitute  spiritual 
development  for  the  traditional  religious  instruction  in  the 
Sunday  school  involved  as  great  a  change  in  Sunday 
school  ideals  and  methods  as  the  substitution  of  the  idea 
of  intellectual  development  for  that  of  the  traditional 
instruction  in  the  school  arts  in  the  ordinary  school  work. 
In  attempting  such  changes  in  Sunday  school  work,  many 
mistakes  have  been  made.  Spiritual  truths  cannot 
always  be  expressed  in  material  form,  and  the  shortness 
of  the  Sunday  school  program  will  not  permit  of  many 


PERIOD   OF  extension;     CHURCH   WORK,   ETC.         87 

features  that  are  permissible  and  proper  in  a  day  kinder- 
garten. Some  of  the  kindergarten  instrumentalities  —  the 
songs,  finger  rhymes,  pictures,  and  stories  —  are  as  valuable 
and  appropriate  in  a  Sunday  school  kindergarten  as  in 
any  other,  but  it  is  a  question  whether  the  gifts  and  oc- 
cupations have  a  place  there.  The  Sunday  school  teacher 
who  had  the  children  sew  a  black  heart  to  represent  the 
original  sinful  condition  of  that  organ,  and  a  white  one  to 
show  the  effect  of  Christ's  atoning  sacrifice,  had  not  yet 
comprehended  the  true  principles  of  kindergarten  proce- 
dure in  its  application  to  Sunday  school  work.  If  kinder- 
garten training  is  necessary  to  carry  on  the  ordinary  kin- 
dergarten, it  cannot  be  less  necessary  to  carry  on  that  highest 
of  all  kinds,  the  church  or  Sunday  school  kindergarten. 
As  it  is  frequently  impossible  to  secure  a  trained  kinder- 
gartner,  much  of  the  so-called  kindergarten  Sunday  school 
work  is  form  rather  than  substance.  That  so  much  has 
been  done  is  occasion  for  congratulation,  but  it  is  only  a 
beginning. 

The  value  of  the  kindergarten  for  the  children  and  of 
kindergarten  training  for  the  teacher  is  being  increasingly 
recognized  in  missionary  work  —  that  among  special 
peoples  in  our  own  country,  such  as  the  Indians,  Mexi- 
cans, Negroes,  and  Chinese  —  and  in  the  foreign  field. 
Information  concerning  the  extent  to  which  kindergarten 
work  has  been  so  adopted  has  been  difficult  to  obtain. 
Some  denominations  appear  to  have  taken  up  the  kinder- 
garten as  a  missionary  agency  to  a  greater  extent  than  have 
others.     The  Roman  Catholic   Church  has  as  yet  done 


88        THE  KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

little  apparently  in  this  direction,  probably  for  the  reason 
that  teaching  both  at  home  and  in  the  mission  fields  is 
confined  to  certain  religious  orders.  The  members  of 
these  orders  would  hardly  be  likely  to  have  taken  kin- 
dergarten training  before  entering  upon  the  religious 
life,  and  could  not  do  so  afterwards  unless  the  church  itself 
were  to  establish  a  kindergarten  training  school.  The 
Lutherans  as  a  denomination  seem  to  have  done  little 
toward  the  adoption  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  church  or 
missionary  agency.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
seems  to  have  recognized  the  value  of  the  kindergarten  to 
an  unusual  degree,  probably  because  it  emphasizes  the 
building  up  of  Christian  character  from  infancy. 

The  information  on  the  subject  of  the  kindergarten  in 
missionary  work  given  in  the  following  pages  is  recognized 
as  inadequate.  It  has  been  obtained  from  scattering  notices 
in  the  kindergarten  periodicals,  from  the  missionary 
reports  and  magazines  of  some  of  the  leading  denomi- 
nations, and  from  replies  to  letters.  The  field  is  not  ade- 
quately covered,  but  all  the  information  that  was  obtain- 
able is  given.  Some  conspicuous  examples  are  given  as 
illustrations  of  what  is  known  to  have  been  accomplished 
in  some  instances  and  of  what  may  therefore  be  done  in 
others. 

That  the  demand  for  kindergartners  in  missionary 
work  is  constantly  greater  than  the  supply  is  a  most 
gratifying  symptom.  '  A  kindergartner  who  recently 
attended  the  sessions  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 
Women's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   church  work,  etc.      89 

Church  wrote  to  The  Kindergarten  Review  not  long  since, 
as  follows:  "I  met  missionaries  who  were  home  from 
many  different  countries,  and  as  I  conversed  with  one  and 
another,  they  almost  unanimously  expressed  a  present 
and  instant  need  for  trained  kindergartners.  From 
Japan,  India,  Peru,  Mexico,  and  China  come  similar 
tales  of  efforts  made  to  start  kindergartens,  where  furnish- 
ing and  materials  were  at  hand,  and  pupils  and  native 
assistants  eager  to  learn,  but  no  competent,  thoroughly 
trained  kindergartners  able  to  train  native  girls  were  in 
the  field.  Doubtless  others  had  appreciated  as  little  as  I 
the  special  adaptability  of  the  kindergarten  idea  in  the 
training  of  little  ones  in  the  foreign  lands,  and  the  immense 
advantage  which  a  kindergartner  has  because  her  methods 
may  be  easily  applied  without  waiting  to  overcome  the 
obstacles  of  language  and  custom  which  cause  the  teachers 
of  older  children  to  stumble  most  grievously.  Now  the 
thought  that  occurred  to  me,  knowing  that  three  of  my 
own  class  in  training  were  already  in  foreign  lands,  was 
this :  Do  the  girls  who  are  studying  in  our  training  schools 
and  emerging  year  after  year  filled  with  the  spirit  of  the 
child  lover,  intensified  by  the  knowledge  gained  of  ways 
of  child  gardening,  know  that  other  countries  are  pleading 
for  the  services  which  our  country  values  so  lightly  be- 
cause so  easily  obtained?"  Kindergartners  are  hearing 
the  call,  "Come  over  and  help  us,"  from  the  foreign 
field  with  increasing  frequency.  At  the  Milwaukee 
meeting  of  the  International  Kindergarten  Union  there 
was  an  urgent  call  for  a  kindergarten  training  teacher  to 


90        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

go  to  Tokyo  to  assume  a  position  of  great  strategic  impor- 
tance, but  the  proper  person  could  not  be  found.  Miss 
Montgomery  of  the  Oberlin  Kindergarten  Training  School 
states  that  during  the  past  five  years  she  has  had  demands 
for  kindergarten  teachers  for  the  foreign  field  which  she 
has  been  utterly  unable  to  supply.  To  meet  such  demands 
missionary  training  schools  are  establishing  kindergarten 
departments  in  their  institutions.  Mrs.  J.  N.  Crouse,  of 
Chicago,  president  of  the  Baptist  Woman's  Home  Mis- 
sionary Board,  stated  in  1892,  that  she  had  found  it  ad- 
visable to  provide  at  least  partial  kindergarten  training  for 
all  the  students  in  the  Missionary  Training  School,  and 
during  the  year  fifty-six  students  in  that  institution  had 
attended  the  mothers'  meetings  at  Chicago  Kindergarten 
College.  The  Baptist  Training  School  for  Christian  Work 
at  Philadelphia,  and  the  Deaconesses'  Training  School  at 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  have  adopted  a  like  policy.  The 
Folts  Mission  Institute  at  Herkimer,  New  York,  an 
institution  under  the  management  of  the  Woman's  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
has  a  regularly  organized  kindergarten  training  depart- 
ment of  its  own  because  of  the  need  of  trained  kinder- 
gartners  in  missionary  fields. 

As  has  been  stated,  definite  information  concerning 
the  number  of  mission  stations  that  include  the  kinder- 
garten has  been  difficult  to  obtain.  The  Woman's  Board 
of  Home  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  1906 
made  the  following  statement  in  reply  to  inquiry.  "We 
heartily  approve  of  kindergarten  methods  and  kindergarten 


PERIOD  OF  extension;     CHURCH  WORK,   ETC.         9 1 

training,  but  as  our  work  is  almost  entirely  with  exceptional 
peoples,  we  are  unable  to  conduct  many  kindergartens. 
In  our  primary  work  we  always  give  preference  to  teachers 
having  the  kindergarten  training.  The  gifts,  the  weaving, 
and  the  games  are  introduced  into  most  of  the  schools  under 
the  care  of  Miss  Goodrich  in  North  Carolina.  We  are 
hoping  to  establish  a  kindergarten  in  Havana,  Cuba, 
next  fall  as  a  part  of  our  mission  work  there.  I  can  assure 
you  that  the  fact  that  wc  do  not  hav^  many  kindergartens 
in  our  schools  is  not  due  to  our  lack  of  interest  in  these 
methods  of  work,  but  rather  to  the  demand  for  other  work 
being  so  great  that  we  have  not  had  the  funds  for  distinctive 
kindergarten  work."  The  American  Missionary  Associa- 
tion of  the  Congregational  Church,  whose  work  is  among 
the  negroes,  Indians,  Chinese,  and  similar  peoples,  makes 
a  reply  to  nearly  the  same  effect.  The  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  also  has  kindergartens  in  connection  with  its 
mission  schools  of  this  character.  Kindergartens  are 
maintained  as  a  part  of  the  mission  work  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  and  in  Mexico  also.  The  Presbyterian  Board 
of  Missions  in  1896  sent  a  kindergartner  to  Bahia,  Brazil, 
and  the  reports  of  her  work  have  been  most  encouraging. 

The  kindergarten  has  become  a  part  of  the  mission  work 
in  several  different  portions  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Australasia. 
The  Woman's  Board  of  the  Interior  of  the  Congregational 
Church  maintains  kindergartens  in  four  out  of  its  five 
mission  stations  in  Benguella,  Portuguese  West  Africa. 
The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  supports  at  least  one  in 
Umtali,  Rhodesia.     Others  are  reported  at  Cisambia  and 


92        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

Bailundu,  Africa,  but  by  what  denominations  they  are 
maintained  could  not  be  learned.  There  are  kindergartens 
in  the  Samoan  Islands,  and  at  least  one  at  Ruk,  Mi- 
cronesia. This  was  organized  in  1897  by  Miss  Logan, 
whose  father,  the  Rev.  Robert  Logan,  gave  his  life  to 
missionary  effort  in  the  Mortlock  Islands.  There  is 
one  kindergarten  under  the  auspices  of  the  Congregational 
Church  at  Kankesandurai,  and  another  at  Columbo, 
Ceylon.  Several  kindergartens  are  maintained  in  Burma 
by  the  Woman's  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary  Society. 
One  of  these  is  at  Rangoon,  one  at  Moulmein,  and  one  at 
Bassein.  This  society  also  maintains  a  kindergarten  at 
Mandelay,  one  at  Huchow,  China,  and  at  least  four  in 
connection  with  its  missions  in  Japan.  In  connection 
with  two  of  these  at  Tokyo  and  at  Kobe,  training  classes 
have  been  organized  for  the  instruction  of  native  girls. 

The  kindergarten  has  been  adopted  as  an  agency  in  the 
mission  work  in  India  by  several  denominations,  but 
information  concerning  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  so- 
adopted  has  been  exceedingly  difficult  to  obtain.  A  mis- 
sionary recently  returned  from  India  is  authority  for  the 
statement  that  the  mission  schools  of  all  denominations 
are  required  by  law  to  adopt  certain  features  of  the  kinder- 
garten in  their  elementary  schools  to  secure  certain  privi- 
leges from  the  government.  In  the  thirty  girls'  schools 
supported  by  the  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  that  country,  these  features 
are  emphasized,  and  in  several  schools  trained  kinder-; 
gartners  are  employed.  '  A  kindergarten  department  was 


PERIOD   OF   EXTENSION;     CHURCH    WORK,   ETC.         93 

organized  in  Thoburn  College  at  Lucknow,  the  principal 
institution  of  the  Methodist  Church  for  the  training  of 
young  women,  ten  or  more  years  ago,  in  which  many 
native  young  women  have  been  trained.  A  kinder- 
garten is  maintained  by  the  Friends  Mission  at  Nowgong, 
Bundelkhand,  and  several  are  maintained  by  the  Con- 
gregational Church.  One  of  these  is  at  Bombay,  and 
another  at  Sholapur.  At  the  last-named  place  a  kinder- 
garten training  school  has  been  organized  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Miss  Mary  B.  Harding,  in  which  many  native  young 
women  have  been  prepared  for  kindergarten  work  in  other 
mission  fields.  Miss  Harding  has  rendered  an  important 
service  to  the  kindergarten  cause  in  India  by  translating 
into  one  of  the  native  languages  the  books  collectively 
termed  "The  Republic  of  Childhood,"  by  Kate  Douglas 
Wiggin  and  Nora  A.  Smith.  Calcutta,  Cawnpore,  Ali- 
garh,  and  Madras  are  also  known  to  be  kindergarten 
centers,  but  the  denominations  under  whose  auspices  the 
work  was  inaugurated  and  maintained  could  not  be  learned. 
Punclita  Ramabai  considered  kindergarten  training  a 
necessary  preparation  for  the  work  that  she  hoped  to  do  for 
her  own  countrywomen.  In  the  school  which  she  es- 
tablished upon  her  return  to  her  native  country,  in  1888, 
the  kindergarten  forms  an  important  part. 

China,  too,  is  beginning  to  feel  the  beneficent  influence 
of  the  kindergarten.  Although  little  definite  information 
could  be  obtained  concerning  the  extent  to  which  it  has 
been  adopted  there,  it  is  known  to  have  become  a  part  of 
the  work  of  three  great  denominations,  —  the  Baptist,  the 
Methodist  Episcopal,  and  the  Congregational. 


94        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

The  kindergarten  has  become  a  conspicuous  part  of 
mission  work  in  Turkey  and  in  Japan,  and  an  account  of 
the  work  in  these  two  countries  cannot  fail  to  be  of  interest. 
In  1896  there  were  twenty-eight  kindergartens  that  had 
been  established  in  Turkey  by  the  Woman's  Board  of  the 
Interior  of  the  Congregational  Church,  and  several  that 
had  been  established  through  other  agencies.  The  whole 
movement  in  Turkey  grew  out  of  the  establishment  of  a 
kindergarten  in  the  American  School  for  Girls  in  Smyrna, 
in  1885.  Miss  Nellie  S.  Bartlett,  who  undertook  the  work 
there  and  who  has  seen  it  grow  to  its  present  proportions, 
thus  spoke  of  it  some  years  ago  in  The  Kindergarten 
Magazine : 

"The  kindergarten  was  opened  with  seven  children  in 
the  sunny  room  of  the  Girls'  School.  This  proved  to  be 
the  most  attractive  place  in  the  building,  judging  from  the 
eagerness  with  which  the  older  pupils  flocked  to  the 
windows  and  doors  during  the  recess  time.  Erelong  the 
room  was  crowded  with  thirty  children,  and  still  later  as 
the  number  continued  to  increase,  a  part  of  them  were 
accommodated  in  the  chapel.  It  was  a  joyful  day  when 
the  department  was  transferred  to  the  beautiful  building 
of  the  Woman's  Board  of  Missions.  The  large  hall  is 
used  for  the  general  exercises  and  the  Sunday  school,  and 
there  are  four  airy  class  rooms.  The  training  school  is 
well  accommodated  here.  In  the  pleasant  garden  each 
child  has  a  small  flower-bed  to  dig,  plant,  and  water  as 
he  likes. 

"The  success  of  the  Smyrna  kindergarten  created  a 


PERIOD   OF  extension;     CHURCH   WORK,   ETC.         95 

demand  for  a  like  blessing  in  other  places,"  continues  Miss 
Bartlett,  "but  this  was  out  of  the  question  without  thor- 
oughly prepared  kindergartners.  Hence  young  ladies 
from  different  parts  of  Turkey  were  sent  to  Smyrna  for 
the  needed  training,  which  has  been,  and  still  is,  a  most 
important  part  of  the  work."  In  view  of  the  importance 
of  the  work  several  additional  American  kindergartners 
were  sent  to  Turkey.  Miss  Saunders,  who  was  sent  to 
Smyrna  to  assist  Miss  Bartlett,  "was  loaned  to  Constanti- 
nople after  a  year  of  faithful  service,  where  in  the  midst 
of  great  difficulty  on  account  of  the  condition  of  the  country, 
she  conducted  a  kindergarten  training  class  and  superin- 
tended several  kindergartens  by  sending  them  plans  of 
work."  In  Cesarea  excellent  work  of  the  same  kind  was 
done  by  Miss  Burrage,  in  Mardin  by  Miss  Graf,  in  Van  by 
Miss  Huntington,  and  in  Trebizond  by  Miss  Halsey. 
Kindergarten  training  is  carried  on  in  the  Girls'  College 
at  Marash  by  a  native  kindergartner,  one  of  Miss  Bartlett's 
graduates.  Such  training  is  also  given  in  the  Girls'  Board- 
ing School  at  Marsovan. 

Miss  Bartlett  stated  further  that  in  the  twelve  years  that 
had  passed  since  the  work  was  undertaken  about  fifty 
young  women  and  two  young  men  had  taken  a  course  in 
kindergarten  training.  The  number  of  kindergartens 
had  increased  until  at  the  time  that  the  article  was  written, 
in  1896,  there  were  twenty-eight,  as  has  been  stated,  in 
Asiatic  Turkey  alone.  A  number  of  these  soon  became 
self-supporting.  One,  that  at  Yozgat,  was  supported  by 
the  local  Y.  P.  S.  C.  E.     Some  of  them  received  more  or 


96        THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

less  help  from  America.  All  but  two  were  carried  on  in 
the  Turkish  or  Armenian  language.  English  is  used  in 
the  one  connected  with  the  American  College  for  Girls 
at  Constantinople,  and  the  Greek  children  in  the  school  at 
Smyrna  are  taught  in  their  own  language.  Miss  Bartlett 
concludes  her  article  by  saying:  "If  kindergartens  are 
desirable  in  America,  they  are  tenfold  more  so  in  this 
country.  The  kindergarten  is  now  believed  to  be  a  neces- 
sity in  every  mission  station  and  there  is  a  greater  demand 
for  well-trained  kindergartners  than  can  be  supplied." 

Missionary  effort  in  Japan  has  called  the  kindergarten 
to  its  aid  with  most  gratifying  results.  "The  time  was," 
says  a  recent  writer,  "when  missionaries  worked  mostly 
for  grown-up  people,  but  the  children  are  getting  their 
share,  or  a  little  of  it  these  days,  and  kindergartens,  Sunday 
schools,  Young  People's  Societies  of  Christian  Endeavor, 
and  orphanages  are  helping  to  make  life  happier  and  better 
for  the  children  of  Japan."  Kindergartens  were  established 
as  a  part  of  the  Japanese  public  school  system  in  1876, 
and  in  1904  it  was  estimated  that  there  were  one  hundred 
eighty-two  public  and  ninety-eight  private  kindergartens 
in  the  country.  The  very  fact  of  the  ready  acceptance  of 
the  kindergarten  by  the  Japanese  people  suggested  their 
value  as  a  missionary  agency.  In  1889  Miss  Annie  L. 
Howe,  of  Chicago,  was  sent  to  Japan  by  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  of  the 
Congregational  Church,  to  open  a  kindergarten  and  a 
kindergarten  training  department  in  Kobe  College,  one 
of  the  most  important  centers  for  the  training  of  girls. 


PERIOD   OF  EXTENSION;     CHURCH   WORK,   ETC.        97 

The  kindergarten,  called  the  Glory  Kindergarten,  was 
immediately  successful  and  has  more  than  realized  the 
hopes  of  its  founders.  It  now  has  two  admirable  build- 
ings of  its  own,  one  for  the  kindergarten  proper,  and  one  a 
home  for  the  students  in  training.  The  latter  was  the 
gift  of  Chicago  friends,  among  whom  was  that  stanch 
friend  of  the  kindergarten,  Mrs.  E.  W.  Blatchford.  A 
writer  in  Life  and  Light  thus  speaks  of  this  kindergarten : 
''The  most  fascinating  place  in  Kobe,  and  I  except  not 
even  the  curio  shops,  the  waterfall,  or  the  walk  over  the 
hills,  is  the  dainty  little  kindergarten  which  Miss  Howe 
has  mothered  and  which  she  is  still  mothering.  Sight- 
seers come,  and  usually  before  they  left  England  or  Amer- 
ica some  one  had  told  them  to  look  up  the  kindergarten. 
But  if,  as  sometimes  happens,  they  do  not  know  about  it, 
some  one  here  is  sure  to  say :  '  Have  you  seen  the  kinder- 
garten? Then  you  must  go.'  And  go  they  do,  only  to 
come  away  saying,  as  I  myself  heard  at  least  two  people 
say  recently,  'It  is  the  most  fascinating  place  in  Japan.' 
I  have  seen  the  kindergartens  in  Boston  and  other  cities 
and  enthused  over  them,  but  all  in  all  I  still  commend  the 
Glory  Kindergarten."  After  commenting  on  the  pictur- 
esque costumes  and  the  exquisite  manners  of  the  Japanese 
children,  the  writer  continues :  "  The  rooms  are  large, 
airy,  and  sunny,  and  filled  with  every  kindergarten  neces- 
sity and  many  a  luxury.  Out  in  the  yard  each  child  has 
his  own  fiower  garden,  which  he  cares  for  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  his  flowers  adorn  the  school  and  go  out  to  visit 
sick  fellow-pupils.     In  winter  each  child  has  a  plant  and 


98        THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

this  he  cares  for  in  true  kindergarten  style,  with  song  and 
marching ;  and  he  learns  its  habits  as  he  watches  its  growth, 
its  budding,  its  blooming,  and  seeding  from  day  to  day. 
The  children  also  have  birds  belonging  to  the  school  to  care 
for,  and  in  caring  for  them  learn  neatness  and  tenderness. 
Each  child,  too,  at  one  time  or  another,  has  his  paste- 
board and  gauze  box  containing  silkworms,  and  these  he 
feeds  and  watches  through  all  their  changes.  In  the  cabi- 
net in  one  of  the  rooms  is  a  skein  of  silk  spun,  from  the  chil- 
dren's own  cocoons.  It  is  not  worth  while  going  into  further 
details.  All  that  is  done  at  home  is  done  here,  and  they 
are  not  one  whit  behind  in  modern  improvements." 

Miss  Howe  herself  thus  speaks  of  the  work:  "When 
the  children  who  go  to  the  public  school  stand  up  to  receive 
the  certificate  which  they  must  take  to  their  future  teachers, 
they  will  feel,  and  we  shall  too,  that  a  step  upward  has  been 
taken.  They  will  take  with  them  the  memory  of  the 
many  prayers,  the  songs  about  God,  the  Christmas  songs, 
the  Bible  stories  they  have  come  to  know  so  well,  the  bless- 
ing asked  at  luncheon  time,  the  ideas  they  have  gained  of 
the  connection  between  flowers,  fmit,  grain,  trees,  —  yes, 
and  even  stones,  and  the  God  who  made  all  these  things 
for  us.  They  will  keep  on  going  to  Sunday  school,  many 
of  them,  and  I  am  sure  that  all  this  they  have  learned  in 
a  Christian  kindergarten  will  influence  them  as  long  as  they 
live."  In  1904  she  said:  "Kindergartens  which  have 
won  the  confidence  of  the  Japanese  are  very  popular,  and 
it  is  not  unusual  to  have  applications  filed  two  years  in 
advance,  to  secure  a  child's  admission  when  he  becomes 


PERIOD   OF   EXTENSION  ;    CHURCH   WORK,    ETC.        99 

three  years  of  age.  A  list  of  nearly  two  hundred  applica- 
tions has  been  known  to  be  in  waiting  in  October  for 
twenty  vacancies  which  would  occur  in  April,  the  time 
when  kindergarten  children  of  six,  according  to  Japanese 
law,  pass  up  to  the  elementary  school." 

In  the  first  six  years  of  its  existence  this  kindergarten 
had  taught  hundreds  of  children,  the  average  attendance 
being  about  seventy,  and  had  graduated  twenty-three 
young  women  from  the  training  course.  The  Congre- 
gational Church  in  Japan  had  in  1903  twelve  mission 
stations,  and  four  of  these  have  adopted  the  kindergarten 
as  a  regular  part  of  their  work.  All  of  these  have  build- 
ings of  their  own  and  are  well  equipped.  Dr.  Gordon, 
one  of  the  missionaries,  wrote  as  follows  some  time  ago 
concerning  one  of  the  Kyoto  kindergartens:  "It  has  been 
my  privilege  to  be  associated  with  one  (kindergarten) 
established  here  in  connection  with  our  'Airinsha,'  or 
House  of  Neighborly  Love,  our  headquarters  for  philan- 
thropic and  evangelical  work  in  the  city.  The  printed 
account  of  the  origin  of  the  Airinsha  stated  that  the  kinder- 
garten had  added  much  to  the  reputation  of  the  house, 
and  promised  to  be  one  of  its  most  permanent  attractions. 
Since  then  the  kindergarten  has  marched  right  along  on 
the  road  to  success,  so  that  we  have  now  one  head  teacher 
and  two  assistants,  and  the  limit  of  pupils  that  we  have 
set  is  entirely  filled.  This  kind  of  work  appeals  especially 
to  the  Japanese,  and  now  that  sentiment  is  not  so  favorable 
to  Christianity  as  it  was  a  few  years  ago,  I  know  of  no 
other  method  equally  helpful  in  reaching  Japanese  homes. 


lOO     THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

The  children  are  a  delight  to  see.  Nearly  all  of  them 
attend  the  Sunday  school  and  help  to  make  it  the  success 
it  is.  The  older  brothers  and  sisters  of  the  pupils,  and 
in  some  cases  their  nurses,  come  with  them  to  the  Sunday 
school.  The  success  of  this  kindergarten,  as  well  as  Miss 
Howe's  good  work  in  Kobe,  has  called  attention  to  its 
importance."  Here  as  elsewhere,  in  Japan  and  in  other 
countries,  the  opportunities  of  the  work  are  limited  only 
by  the  lack  of  means  and  of  teachers. 

One  of  the  greatest  services  that  Miss  Howe  is  rendering 
the  cause  of  kindergarten  advancement  in  Japan  is  the 
translation  of  Froebelian  literature  into  Japanese.  It 
is  difficult  to  realize  the  difficulty  of  training  kindergartners 
in  a  country  where  customs  are  strange,  where  the  language 
is  unfamiliar,  and  where  there  are  no  helps  of  any  kind,  — 
text-books,  song  books,  or  story  books.  "  Miss  Howe  has  a 
genuine  Japanese  mother-play  book  of  which  she  is  very 
proud,"  said  a  writer  in  speaking  of  her  work  in  1896.  "  She 
says,  'I  have  proved  over  and  over  again  that  Froebel's 
principles  are  as  true  in  Japan  as  they  are  in  Germany 
and  America,  and  since  the  best  kindergarten  work  is 
based  upon  that  book,  that  book  must  be  Japanned  with- 
out delay.  It  is  now  finished.'  In  translating  and  pub- 
lishing the  book,  a  young  man,  Sadato  San,  was  her  inval- 
uable assistant ;  and  after  nearly  five  years  of  effort  it  is 
safely  through  the  press.  The  Japanese  artist  conformed 
the  mother-play  pictures  to  native  canons  and  put  in 
many  pretty  and  suggestive  touches  of  the  life  of  Japan, 
yet  he  preserved  the  spirit  of  the  subject  wonderfully 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   church  work,  etc.     IOI 

well.  A  song  book  adapting  many  kindergarten  songs 
from  Eleanor  Smith's  and  other  song  books  in  use  in 
American  kindergartens  has  also  been  published  in 
Japanese."  Another  such  book  has  since  been  pubished, 
and  in  1904  Froebel's  "Education  of  Man,"  and  several 
other  books,  had  been  translated  and  were  awaiting  pub- 
lication. The  preparation  of  these  books  will  be  of  value 
to  every  kindergartner  in  the  Japanese  Empire. 

The  adoption  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  missionary 
agency  in  Japan  will  have  a  most  important  influence 
upon  the  character  of  mission  work  in  the  Orient,  now 
that  that  nation  has  assumed  the  leadership  in  the  Far 
East.  In  Japan,  as  in  other  countries  where  the  kinder- 
garten has  been  adopted,  its  value  is  twofold.  It  influences 
the  children  at  an  age  when  impressions  are  most  lasting, 
and  it  proves  to  be  one  of  the  most  effective  agencies  for 
reaching  the  homes  of  the  people.  For  these  reasons 
the  social  settlement  considers  the  kindergarten  one  of 
its  strongest  agencies.  The  most  successful  church  work 
at  home  and  missionary  work  abroad  is  that  which  is 
adopting  settlement  methods.  The  Protestant  Church 
is  beginning  to  take  to  heart  the  lesson  contained  in  a 
conversation  reported  by  Julian  Ralph.  "  Do  the  materi- 
alistic tendencies  of  the  times  weaken  the  Catholic  Church 
in  America?"  I  once  asked  of  a  Paulist  Father  whom 
I  met  on  a  railway  train.  "Oh,  no,"  said  he;  "we 
Catholics  catch  our  people  young  and  they  never  get  away 
from  us.  We  hold  that  if  we  can  have  the  care  and 
guidance  of  a  child  under  seven  years  of  age,  it  will  always 


102      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

come  back  to  the  church  in  after  years,  in  every  important 
crisis  of  grief  or  joy  in  Hfe.  That  is  why  our  great  church 
is  unaffected  by  the  godlessness  that  alarms  others.  We 
make  Catholics  of  little  children,  and  they  never  cease 
to  grow  as  the  twig  is  bent." 


CHAPTER   VII 

The  Period  of  Extension;    The  Kindergarten  in 
Temperance,  Settlement,  and  Welfare  Work 

The  adoption  of  the  kindergarten  by  religious  organi- 
zations of  different  kinds  brouglit  it  to  the  attention  of 
many  people  who  might  not  otherwise  have  made  its 
acquaintance.  It  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  a  still 
larger  class  through  its  adoption  by  the  temperance  workers 
of  the  country.  The  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union  must  therefore  be  given  an  important  place  among 
the  agencies  that  have  aided  in  advancing  the  kindergarten 
cause.  This  organization  has  been  conspicuous  for  its 
efforts  to  correct  the  evils  resulting  from  the  liquor  traffic, 
and  to  reform  lives  and  homes  blasted  by  the  drink  habit, 
yet  it  has  realized  fully  that  the  ultimate  foundation  for 
temperance  must  be  laid  in  education,  and  the  value  of 
its  educational  work  —  less  conspicuous  than  its  corrective 
efforts  —  has  been  beyond  estimate.  The  organization 
felt  that  intemperate  husbands  and  fathers  must  be  re- 
claimed and  poverty-stricken,  discouraged  mothers  helped 
to  a  higher  plane,  but  that  if  the  homes  of  the  future  were 
to  be  safe,  the  mothers  of  the  present,  whether  the  victims 
of  intemperance  or  free  from  its  blighting  touch,  must  be 
taught  such  methods  of  child  training  as  will  make  their 

103 


I04      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

children  safe  against  the  temptations  of  the  lower  senses. 
It  felt  also  that  mothers  must  be  awakened  to  their  respon- 
sibility for  the  kind  of  education  provided  in  the  school, 
and  to  the  need  of  cooperation  with  those  who  are  working 
for  its  improvement. 

With  these  ideas  in  mind,  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  marked  out 
two  special  lines  of  w^ork  that  had  an  important  bearing 
upon  kindergarten  progress.  To  acquaint  mothers  with 
the  fundamental  principles  of  child  rearing  as  these  are 
embodied  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  kindergarten 
was  one;  to  stimulate  them  to  effort  in  the  direction  of 
kindergarten  advancement,  such  as  the  incorporation  of 
the  kindergarten  into  the  school  or  the  establishment  of 
mission  kindergartens  in  localities  where  the  drink  habit 
had  worked  the  greatest  havoc,  was  another.  These 
lines  of  work  could  not  be  successfully  carried  out,  how- 
ever, without  carefully  organized  effort,  and  the  coopera- 
tion and  leadership  of  kindergarten  experts.  The  need 
of  a  kindergarten  department  in  W.  C.  T.  U.  work  was 
therefore  felt,  and  such  a  department  was  subsequently 
added  to  those  already  organized.  Since  the  work  with 
mothers  was  felt  to  be  of  the  greatest  importance,  a  care- 
fully planned  course  of  study  in  Froebelian  literature  was 
outlined,  and  local  unions  were  urged  to  organize  classes 
for  systematic  work  in  this  direction.  The  movement 
was  undertaken  with  much  enthusiasm  all  over  the  land, 
and  its  influence  and  value  cannot  be  overestimated.  As 
a  means  of  creating  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  kindergarten 
nothing  better  could  have  been  devised.     Existing  kinder- 


PERIOD  OF  extension;  temperance  work,  etc.    105 

garten  literature  was  made  the  basis  of  the  work  done  in 
these  study  classes,  and  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  itself  published 
several  valuable  pamphlets  on  the  subject.  Mrs.  E. 
G.  Greene,  who  occupied  the  position  of  Superintendent 
of  the  Kindergarten  Department  of  the  National 
W.  C.  T.  U.  during  the  eighties,  issued  a  pamphlet  of 
directions  for  local  workers,  called  "Golden  Keys,"  which 
is  a  complete  manual  on  the  subject.  It  gave  the  reasons 
why  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  had  taken  up  the  kindergarten  as  a 
department  of  its  work,  the  aims  of  the  department,  the 
list  of  books  to  be  read,  and  suggestions  for  conducting 
the  local  study  classes. 

No  less  valuable  for  the  kindergarten  cause  was  the 
work  done  by  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  in  establishing  kinder- 
gartens. Owing  to  the  fact  that  statistics  concerning 
the  number  so  established  or  still  maintained  have  been 
difficult  to  obtain,  some  of  the  most  important  ones  may 
have  been  omitted  in  the  list  given  below.  The  Central 
W.  C.  T.  U.  of  Chicago  established  such  a  kindergarten 
in  Bethel  Mission  in  1883,  and  maintained  it  for  years. 
The  South  Side  Union  also  maintained  one  for  years. 
Other  cities  in  which  W.  C.  T.  U.  kindergartens  are  known 
to  have  been  established  are :  Evanston,  111.,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Grand  Rapids,  Battle  Creek,  and  Big  Rapids,  Mich., 
Albany,  N.Y.,  Springfield,  Vt.,  Portland,  Me.,  Balitmore, 
Md .,  Toledo  and  Youngstown,  O .,  Minneapolis,  Minn. ,  Lex- 
ington, Ky.,  and  Los  Angeles,  Lakeport,  Berkeley,  San 
Francisco,  National  City,  and  San  Jose,  Cal.  In  the  last- 
named  city  the  kindergarten  was  inaugurated  by  the  W.  C. 


I06      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

T.  U.  and  later  taken  up  by  the  public  school  authorities 
The  amount  of  work  done  by  local,  state,  and  national 
workers  in  securing  the  incorporation  of  the  kindergarten 
into  the  school  system  cannot  be  ascertained  or  estimated. 
Suggestions  concerning  the  methods  of  effecting  this  are 
frequent  in  W.  C.  T.  U.  literature.  While  Miss  Mary 
E.  McDowell  was  superintendent  of  the  kindergarten 
department  of  the  W.  C.  T.  U.,  a  department  was  edited 
in  The  Kindergarten  News  under  the  heading  "  W.  C.  T.  U. 
Kindergartens."  In  this  the  following  suggestions  were 
made.  "  By  offering  to  support  a  kindergarten  in  a  public 
school  building  for  a  year  you  will  be  giving  an  ignorant 
public  and  an  indifferent  school  board  an  object  lesson 
which  may  result  in  the  adoption  of  the  system  as  a  part 
of  the  school  work."  A  later  suggestion  is  to  the  effect 
that  "Legislation  needs  influencing  also."  "Laws  incor- 
porating the  kindergarten  as  a  part  of  the  state  public 
system  should  be  passed  by  every  state."  Such  legislation 
was  effected  through  the  efforts  of  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  in  at 
least  two  states,  —  Vermont  and  Michigan,  —  in  the 
former  in  1887  and  in  the  latter  in  1891.  The  discussion 
of  kindergarten  work  in  local,  state,  and  national 
W.  C.  T.  U.  conventions,  the  addresses  delivered  by 
the  superintendents  of  the  kindergarten  department,  state 
and  national,  the  published  reports  of  the  work  accom- 
plished by  the  kindergarten  department,  added  to  the 
influence  of  the  kindergartens  established  and  the  mothers' 
clubs  conducted,  combine  to  form  an  influence  that  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  penetrated  to  every  city,  town,  and 


PERIOD  OF  EXTENSION ;    TEMPERANCE  WORK,  ETC.     107 

hamlet  in  the  country.  The  kindergartners  of  the  country 
owe  to  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  a  great  debt  of  gratitude  for  the 
work  that  organization  has  effected  in  behalf  of  the  kinder- 
garten cause. 

Among  the  newer  agencies  to  acquaint  the  public  with 
the  kindergarten  and  its  work  is  the  social  settlement. 
The  growing  desire  to  render  needed  social  service  was 
one  factor  in  the  organization  of  kindergarten  associa- 
tions and  like  forms  of  philanthropic  effort.  The  desire 
to  minister  to  those  in  social,  intellectual,  and  spiritual 
need  gave  birth  likewise  to  the  settlement,  —  the  agency 
that  more  than  any  other  expresses  the  spirit  of  the  present 
age.  So  akin  are  the  social  settlement  and  the  kinder- 
garten in  spirit  that  several  head  residents  of  settlements 
were  originally  kindergartners,  and  several  well-known 
settlements  began  as  mission  kindergartens  and  became 
settlements  by  the  natural  expansion  of  their  work.  This 
is  true  of  the  Neighborhood  House  in  Chicago,  of  the  East 
Side  Settlement  in  Detroit,  of  the  Neighborhood  Settle- 
ment in  Milwaukee,  of  Bissell  House  in  Grand  Rapids, 
of  Kingsley  House  in  New  Orleans,  and  of  several  others 
that  might  be  named.  Other  settlements  are  still  in  the 
process  of  evolution  from  the  kindergarten  stage.  In 
Boston  the  day  nurseries  have  grown  into  settlements. 
The  kindergarten  places  emphasis  upon  the  natural 
instincts  of  childhood,  — upon  its  love  of  companionship, 
its  desire  for  activity,  its  love  for  the  beautiful,  and  its 
yearning  for  knowledge.  The  educational  process  as 
interpreted  by  the  kindergarten  consists  in  the  direction 


Io8      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

and  utilization  of  these  instincts  for  the  furthering  of  the 
child's  intellectual  and  moral  development.  The  settle- 
ment recognizes  the  validity  of  these  instincts  in  children 
of  a  larger  growth,  and  seeks  to  develop  and  direct  them 
in  like  fashion.  The  settlement  has  therefore  been  termed 
a  kindergarten  for  adults.  It  is  the  recognition  of  these 
principles  that  gives  form  and  purpose  to  settlement  work. 
Is  the  neighborhood  in  which  it  operates  lacking  in  oppor- 
tunities for  social  enjoyment?  The  settlement  must 
provide  means  and  occasions  to  meet  that  need.  Is  there 
intellectual  hunger  which  the  locality  has  no  means  of 
satisfying?  Study  classes  must  be  formed  and  other 
avenues  to  knowledge  opened.  Is  appreciation  of  art 
needed,  and  are  standards  in  its  expression  lacking? 
Art  appreciation  must  be  awakened  and  cultivated  by 
exhibits  or  class  instruction,  and  by  concerts  and  musical 
societies.  Like  the  kindergartner,  the  settlement  worker 
must  find  the  point  of  contact  in  those  with  whom  she  is 
working  and  through  spontaneous  interest  and  active 
effort  lead  to  an  appreciation  of  fundamental  truths  and 
governing  principles.  The  settlement  has,  as  a  rule,  no 
dogma  to  inculcate,  like  the  church ;  no  doctrine  to  which 
it  wishes  to  convert  the  public,  like  the  kindergarten 
association,  and  no  special  purpose  to  accomplish,  like 
the  W.  C.  T.  U.  As  the  kindergarten  furnishes  an  all- 
round  development  because  it  meets  the  child's  varied 
needs,  so  the  settlement  aims  to  develop  the  community 
to  which  it  ministers  by  providing  for  its  many-sided  needs. 
In  this  lies  both   its  strength  and  its  limitation.      The 


PERIOD  OF  extension;    TEMPERANCE  WORK,  ETC.     lOQ 

settlement  did  not  adopt  the  various  forms  of  manual 
training  for  its  clubs  and  classes  from  a  desire  to  further 
the  manual  training  movement,  although  it  is  aiding  the 
progress  of  manual  training  as  a  factor  in  education.  It 
did  not  teach  art  or  music  for  the  sake  of  advancing  the 
cause  of  art  education,  although  it  is  doing  so  most  effec- 
tively. It  did  not  include  the  kindergarten  among  its 
agencies  from  a  desire  to  promulgate  the  doctrines  of 
Froebel,  although  it  is  doing  much  for  their  acceptance. 
It  recognized  the  kinship  between  the  spirit  and  method 
of  the  kindergarten  and  those  of  its  own,  and  adopted  that 
institution  as  a  perfect  instrument  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  its  own  ends.  It  has  advanced  the  cause  of  the 
kindergarten,  but  in  its  own  way.  The  settlement  move- 
ment is  not  centrally  organized.  It  has  no  machinery 
like  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  by  means  of  which  it  can  instill  a 
given  doctrine  into  the  minds  of  the  many.  It  has  no 
work  mapped  out  by  a  central  authority  which  each 
settlement  is  supposed  to  take  as  a  working  guide.  Each 
settlement  is  an  independent  unit,  working  in  fraternal 
relation  to  other  settlements,  but  acknowledging  no  central 
authority.  And  yet  the  settlement  has  rendered  a  great 
service  to  the  kindergarten  cause  and  to  the  cause  of  the 
new  education.  It  has  taken  a  strong  hold  upon  the  public 
imagination.  Its  residents,  mostly  young  college  men  and 
women,  are  those  who  will  aid  in  shaping  the  educational 
thought  and  practice  of  the  future.  The  young  men  and 
women  now  in  college,  however,  are  still  largely  the  product 
of  the  old  educational  regime,  and  the  college  ideal  is 


no     THE  KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

still  mainly  the  intellectual  one.  Since  child  study  is 
not  an  integral  part  of  the  average  college  course,  few 
college  students  have  an  acquaintance  with  the  nature 
and  needs  of  early  childhood,  or  a  knowledge  of  the  new 
educational  movements.  Few  of  those  who  undertake 
residence  in  a  settlement  have  come  into  working  contact 
with  a  kindergarten,  or  with  children's  clubs,  playgrounds, 
and  vacation  schools  in  which  its  principles  are  applied. 
That  the  aim  of  the  settlement  and  that  of  the  kindergarten 
are  identical,  that  successful  settlement  work  is  that  which 
is  based  upon  the  methods  employed  in  the  kindergarten 
—  these  are  arguments  in  favor  of  the  kindergarten  that 
are  convincing  and  unanswerable.  The  settlement  may 
not  have  intentionally  preached  the  doctrines  of  Froebel, 
but  it  has  practiced  them  in  every  phase  of  its  work.  In 
the  playground,  the  children's  club,  the  vacation  school, 
nay,  in  the  very  settlement  itself,  one  may  read  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  kindergarten  writ  large.  The  settlement 
has  baptized  many  a  college  man  and  woman  into  a  new 
spirit ;  it  has  given  them  a  new  insight  into  the  meaning 
of  education  and  of  Christianity.  It  has  lent  an  interest 
to  work  with  children  that  is  liable  to  be  sadly  lacking  in 
college  graduates.  If  it  had  done  nothing  more  for  the 
kindergarten  than  to  introduce  it  thus  to  college  people,  it 
would  deserve  the  gratitude  of  every  friend  of  the  kinder- 
garten movement.  But  it  has  done  more,  —  it  is  inter- 
preting Froebel  anew  to  the  kindcrgartners  themselves. 
At  the  Chicago  meeting  of  the  International  Kindergarten 
Union,  Miss  Jane  Addams  told  the  kindcrgartners  there 


PERIOD  OF  extension;    temperance  work,  etc.     Ill 

assembled  that  if  Froebel  were  to  come  back  to  earth  he 
would  be  distinctly  disappointed  to  find  the  kindergartners 
so  largely  occupied  with  children  only,  since  his  is  a 
theory  of  life,  and  not  of  child  education  alone.  The 
follower  of  Froebel  who  is  not  making  the  kindergarten 
a  center  for  neighborhood  work  has  not,  in  Miss  Addams' 
judgment,  grasped  the  whole  significance  of  Froebel's 
doctrine.  That  she  needs  to  look  away  from  the  details 
of  kindergarten  technique  and  study  the  social  significance 
of  Froebel's  philosophy  is  the  message  of  the  settlement 
to  the  kindergartner  of  to-day.  By  its  adoption  of  the 
kindergarten  the  settlement  has  interpreted  it  to  the  public 
in  a  larger  and  higher  sense.  It  is  the  kindergartner's 
duty  to  see  that  the  public  is  not  disappointed. 

It  is  of  interest  to  know  that  the  first  two  settlements 
opened  in  the  United  States,  the  University  Settlement  in 
New  York  and  Hull  House  in  Chicago,  have  had  kinder- 
gartens from  the  beginning,  and  that  nearly  if  not  quite 
half  of  the  two  hundred  settlements  listed  in  the  "Bibli- 
ography of  Settlements"  for  1905  include  the  kindergarten 
among  their  agencies.  Here,  too,  incomplete  returns 
make  a  complete  statement  impossible.  There  can  be 
no  question  concerning  the  place  that  the  kindergarten 
occupies  in  the  estimation  of  Hull  House.  Its  equipment 
for  the  work  with  children  is  exceptionally  complete,  and 
its  Children's  Building,  erected  in  1896,  for  the  special 
use  of  the  neighborhood  children  may  well  serve  as  a 
model  for  other  settlements.  It  is  four  stories  high,  and 
contains  completely  equipped  club  rooms,  a  nursery,  a 


112      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

general  playroom,  and  a  kindergarten  room  that  is  a  model 
of  beauty  and  convenience.  The  superintendent  of  the 
nursery  is  a  trained  kindergartner  who  also  superintends 
the  games  and  plays,  the  playgrounds,  the  children's 
clubs,  and  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  child  life  of  the 
neighborhood.  The  kindergarten  has  been  at  different 
times  in  the  hands  of  the  most  choice  and  talented  kinder- 
gartners  of  Chicago.  One  of  the  oldest  kindergarten 
training  schools  in  the  West,  that  conducted  for  more  than 
thirty  years  by  Mrs.  Alice  H.  Putnam,  gathered  its  students 
under  the  Hull  House  roof  for  several  years,  in  the  con- 
viction that  the  contact  with  the  social  conditions  of  a 
settlement  would  add  to  the  practical  value  of  professional 
kindergarten  training.  Other  settlements  too  have  served 
the  kindergarten  cause  in  this  manner.  The  classes  of 
the  Chicago  Kindergarten  Institute  met  for  several  years 
at  the  settlement  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the 
University  of  Chicago,  and  Chicago  Commons  is  the  per- 
manent home  of  the  Pestalozzi-Froebel  Training  School. 
In  giving  the  kindergarten  students  an  insight  into  child 
life  in  large  cities  and  in  acquainting  them  with  kinder- 
garten principles  in  this  larger  interpretation,  these  settle- 
ments ha"°  rendered  an  additional  service  to  the  kinder- 
garten cause. 

Closely  allied  to  settlement  work  in  many  respects  is 
the  welfare  work  now  being  undertaken  by  many  large 
business  firms  with  the  cooperation  and  for  the  benefit 
of  their  employees.  Employers  are  beginning  to  recognize 
—  apart  from  any  moral  concern  that  they  may  feel  for 


PERIOD  OF  extension;  temperance  work,  etc,    113 

those  in  their  employ  —  that  clean  and  wholesome  con- 
ditions of  labor  will  attract  a  better  class  of  workers  and 
produce  more  and  better  work  than  will  the  opposite; 
in  consequence,  a  general  improvement  in  factory  condi- 
tions is  taking  place.  Attractive  lunch  and  rest  rooms 
are  being  provided,  factory  grounds  are  being  beautified, 
educational  facilities  are  being  offered,  and  wholesome 
and  helpful  recreation  is  being  furnished.  The  benefit 
does  not  as  a  rule  extend  beyond  the  employees  themselves 
excepting  indirectly,  but  in  several  conspicuous  instances 
direct  provision  has  been  made  for  the  welfare  of  the 
families  of  the  employees,  and  in  some  cases  such  benefit 
has  been  extended  to  the  community.  Herbert  H.  Vree- 
land,  Chairman  of  the  Welfare  Department  of  the  National 
Civic  Federation,  says:  "Realizing  that  men  could  not  do 
their  best  work  unless  their  homes  were  what  they  should 
be,  classes  in  domestic  science  have  been  organized  to 
teach  the  proper  preparation  and  serving  of  food,  how 
to  buy  groceries,  the  desirability  of  cleanliness  in  the 
house,  and  how  to  make  comfortable  and  economical 
clothing.  It  goes  without  saying  that  a  good  wholesome 
meal  will  make  a  more  contented  and  efficient  workman, 
and  that  the  disappearance  of  slovenliness  from  the  house- 
hold will  make  the  fireside  an  attractive  and  winning 
competitor  of  the  saloon  when  the  day's  work  is  over." 
The  National  Cash  Register  Company  of  Dayton,  Ohio, 
maintains  "a  model  cottage  such  as  working  people  can 
provide  for  themselves,  which  serves  as  an  object  lesson 
of  how  to  make  such  a  home  pretty  and  attractive."     It 


114      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

is  presided  over  by  a  deaconess  and  operates  as  a  sort  of 
social  settlement.  This  "House  of  Usefulness,"  as  it  is 
deservedly  called,  has  indirectly  taught  many  a  lesson  in 
home  making  and  keeping,  and  has  been  of  the  greatest 
service  in  many  wa,ys. 

To  increase  the  happiness  and  efficiency  of  the  worker, 
provision  must  also  be  made  for  the  welfare  of  his  children. 
Playgrounds,  gardens,  clubs,  and  classes  of  different 
kinds  have  therefore  been  provided  in  several  instances, 
to  occupy  the  hours  that  the  older  children  spend  out  of 
school,  and  kindergartens  have  been  established  and 
maintained  for  the  benefit  of  the  younger  children.  The 
National  Cash  Register  Company  already  mentioned  has 
maintained  for  several  years  a  kindergarten  in  which  a 
hundred  or  more  children  are  enrolled.  The  author  of 
"Factory  People  and  Their  Employees"  describes  the 
work  of  this  company  at  some  length.  He  says,  quoting 
the  reasons  given  by  President  Patterson,  of  the  company 
named,  for  the  establishment  of  the  kindergarten:  "An 
employer  of  a  large  number  of  men  owes  it  to  himself  to 
obtain  the  very  best  men  possible,  and  to  his  employees 
to  give  them  and  their  families  every  opportunity  for  their 
best  development.  If  the  city  in  which  the  factory  is 
placed  does  not  itself  offer  complete  forms  of  education, 
then  it  is  within  his  province  to  set  an  example  showing 
what  can  be  done  by  the  best  schools.  His  purpose  in 
carrying  out  these  ideas  is  not  to  do  these  things  per- 
manently but  to  show  his  own  city  their  value."  This 
Mr.  Patterson  has  done  so  fully,  in  the  judgment  of  the 


PERIOD  OF  extension;  temperance  work,  etc.    115 

author  quoted,  that  the  city  of  Dayton  now  has  a  complete 
system  of  kindergartens,  all  the  result  of  the  example 
of  the  kindergarten  connected  with  his  factory.  The 
author  quoted  adds:  "Mr.  Patterson  believes  that  he 
is  in  business  not  for  a  few  years  but  for  many,  and  that 
the  diflficulties  of  the  past  in  obtaining  workmen  with 
bright  ideas  may  be  overcome  by  training  the  children  of 
the  present.  Since  92  per  cent  of  them  will  earn  their 
living  by  manual  labor,  it  is  certainly  proper  to  give  them 
that  early  training  which  will  make  them  the  best  work- 
men when  they  are  grown.  In  short  he  expects  his  factory 
to  need  skilled  labor  and  more  of  it  for  many  years  to 
come,  and  thinks  that  it  is  wisdom  to  assist  in  preparing 
for  the  future.  He  finds,  too,  that  even  so-called  unskilled 
labor  gives  better  service  when  the  early  training  has  been 
along  right  lines."  "He  also  recognizes,"  continues  the 
author  in  question,  "that  in  his  efforts  to  win  the  good-will 
of  his  operatives  nothing  will  be  more  successful  than 
opportunities  given  to  the  children  of  these  men.  Men 
of  all  classes  appreciate  what  is  done  for  their  sons  and 
daughters  more  than  any  other  favors  shown.  Thought- 
fulness,  therefore,  on  the  part  of  the  employers  for  the  fam- 
ilies of  the  operatives  must  receive  large  returns  in  more 
kindly  feelings  on  the  part  of  the  men  themselves.  Expe- 
rience, not  only  in  this  factory  but  in  others,  has  proved 
this  to  be  a  true  statement  of  the  purpose  of  this  work." 
The  kindergarten  conducted  by  this  company  is  held 
in  the  model  cottage  mentioned.  In  it  the  children's 
clubs  and  classes  also  meet,  as  well  as  the  cooking  and 


Il6     THE  KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

sewing  classes,  the  kindergarten  association,  the  women's 
guilds,  and  other  associations.  So  valuable  does  Presi- 
dent Patterson  consider  kindergarten  training  and  the 
kind  of  education  of  which  it  is  the  type,  that  a  rule  has 
been  made  that  after  191 5  no  one  shall  be  employed  in 
the  factory  who  has  not  had  kindergarten  training.  Such 
endorsement  of  the  kindergarten  by  practical  business 
men  is  worth  much  to  the  kindergarten  cause,  and  it 
cannot  fail  to  call  the  kindergarten  to  the  attention  of 
others,  either  as  a  feature  for  adoption  in  the  welfare 
work  of  business  firms,  or  for  adoption  into  the  school 
system  of  such  cities  as  have  not  yet  given  it  consideration. 
That  the  action  of  the  National  Cash  Register  Company 
has  done  much  to  further  educational  progress  in  the  city 
of  Dayton  cannot  be  questioned.  It  has  not  only  set  the 
seal  of  its  approval  upon  the  kindergarten,  but  upon  man- 
ual training,  gardening,  and  playgrounds,  which  are  its 
legitimate  outgrowths. 

The  business  firm  that  must  be  awarded  the  banner  for 
the  extent  to  which  it  has  adopted  the  kindergarten  as  a 
feature  of  its  welfare  work  is  the  Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron 
Company,  of  Pueblo,  Col.  This  company  owns  forty 
properties  consisting  of  coal,  manganese,  and  iron  mines, 
and  coke  camps,  in  Colorado,  Utah,  Wyoming,  and  New 
Mexico.  It  employs  about  fifteen  thousand  men, 
speaking  not  less  than  twenty-seven  different  languages. 
It  carries  on  a  completely  organized  system  of  welfare 
work,  the  outgrowth  of  a  kindergarten  started  in  one  of 
the  mining  camps  in  1892  by  Mrs.  J.  A.  Kebler,  the  wife 


PERIOD  OF  extension;    TEMPERANCE  WORK,  ETC.     II 7 

of  the  general  manager  of  the  company,  who  afterward 
became  the  president.  This  was  before  the  legislature 
had  enacted  a  law  making  the  maintenance  of  public 
kindergartens  possible.  The  success  of  this  first  kinder- 
garten was  such  that  others  were  soon  opened,  with  which 
certain  features  of  welfare  work  were  connected.  This 
phase  of  work  has  grown  until  there  are  thirteen  kinder- 
gartens in  as  many  localities,  each  the  center  of  work  of 
the  social  settlement  type.  The  company  has  organized 
a  department  called  the  sociological  department,  which 
carries  on  a  complete  system  of  work  for  the  social  better- 
ment of  the  sixty  thousand  or  more  people  that  it  reaches. 
The  company  received  a  gold  medal  at  the  St.  Louis 
Exposition  for  the  exhibit  of  the  kindergartens  in  its 
mining  camps,  and  several  other  medals  for  other  features 
of  its  work. 

The  work  of  this  company  is  unique  in  many  particulars, 
and  deserves  the  highest  commendation  from  many  stand- 
points. It  recognized  the  importance  of  education  for 
its  employees  and  their  wives  as  well  as  for  their  children, 
and  it  has  therefore  taken  an  active  interest  in  the  schools 
of  the  forty  different  communities  in  which  it  operates. 
These  communities  are  mostly  small  towns  of  from  five 
hundred  to  four  thousand  inhabitants,  in  which,  through 
the  cooperation  of  the  company,  the  school  has  become 
the  social  and  intellectual  center  to  an  extent  that  would 
delight  the  advocates  of  the  larger  use  of  school  buildings. 
The  schoolhouses  are  built  with  this  purpose  in  mind. 
They  are  two  stories  in  height,  and  in  addition  to  the  class 


Il8      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

rooms,  contain  a  kindergarten  room  and  a  hall,  where  the 
lectures,  concerts,  and  social  gatherings  of  the  community 
are  held.  "The  credit  for  building  and  inspiring  these 
modern  schoolhouses  must  be  given  to  the  Colorado 
Fuel  and  Iron  Company,  in  whose  camps  they  are  found 
and  at  whose  request  they  were  built,"  says  Dr.  R.  W. 
Corwin,  the  superintendent  of  the  sociological  depart- 
ment. "  In  a  number  of  instances  the  plans  of  the  build- 
ings were  furnished  by  the  company,  and  when  the  school 
fund  was  inadequate  the  company  advanced  thousands 
of  dollars  for  the  erection  and  equipment  of  the  structure. 
The  buildings  in  the  southern  fields  are  likely  to  be  models 
of  all  future  schools  in  the  coal  camps." 

This  company  has  made  a  new  application  of  the  idea 
of  making  the  school  the  center  of  its  community  life, 
in  setting  apart  special  houses  for  the  use  of  the  teachers. 
These  serve  a  double  purpose.  Dr.  Corwin  says  again: 
"One  of  the  problems  which  has  long  confronted  the  de- 
partment is  that  of  providing  for  its  teachers  and  workers 
permanent  boarding  places  and  rooms.  It  is  desired 
furthermore  to  have  some  place  in  each  camp  which  may 
serve  as  a  model  for  camp  housekeepers,  and  which  may 
be  a  sociological  headquarters  and  a  center  for  social 
work.  In  view  of  these  needs  the  company  has  set  aside, 
or  built  in  a  number  of  camps,  houses  for  distinctly 
sociological  purposes.  As  many  rooms  as  are  necessary 
for  the  accommodation  of  teachers  and  workers  are 
furnished,  leaving  the  remainder  of  the  house  to  a  family 
for  occupancy,  so  that  the  teachers  may  not  live  entirely 


PERIOD  OF  extension;  temperance  work,  etc.    119 

alone.  The  furnishings  of  the  teachers'  rooms  are  thor- 
oughly practical  and  sanitary,  and  are  intended  to  serve 
as  a  standard  of  taste  from  which  housekeepers  may 
realize  how  much  may  be  accomplished  with  compara- 
tively small  expenditure." 

It  is  in  these  homes  that  many  of  the  women's  and 
children's  clubs  and  classes  are  held.  "At  first  the  people 
seemed  reluctant  about  coming  to  the  house  to  receive 
lessons  in  cooking  and  sewing,"  says  Dr.  Corwin.  "This 
feeling,  however,  soon  wore  away  and  they  now  begin  to 
feel  that  the  house  is  for  their  benefit  as  well  as  for  the 
teachers.  They  are  much  interested  in  the  furnishings, 
and  take  special  care  to  notice  the  arrangement  and 
quality  of  the  furniture;  the  condition  of  the  cupboards, 
dresser-drawers,  etc.  Such  details  as  the  folding  of  the 
towels,  table  linen,  and  bed  linen  are  also  particularly 
noted.  The  sanitary  couch  has  caused  much  comment. 
Many  have  expressed  a  wish  to  have  their  houses  papered 
just  like  the  teacher's  house." 

But  it  is  the  work  of  the  kindergartens  themselves  that 
is  of  the  greatest  interest.  As  stated,  these  are  thirteen 
in  number,  and  accommodate  nearly  if  not  quite  five 
hundred  children.  Some  of  them  are  located  in  buildings 
erected  especially  for  this  purpose,  but  for  the  most  part 
they  have  comfortable  rooms  in  the  public  school.  The 
enrollment  varies  from  twenty-five  to  sixty-three.  With 
one  exception  they  have  a  morning  session  only,  the  kinder- 
gartner's  time  in  the  afternoon  being  given  to  club  and 
class  work  with  the  older  children.     Of  the  work  in  the 


I20     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

kindergartens  themselves  the  superintendent,  Mrs.  Mar- 
garet Grabill,  says:  "Our  constituency  makes  necessary 
a  few  noteworthy  differences  in  methods  from  those  of 
the  ordinary  kindergartens.  Many  of  the  children  come 
to  us  with  no  knowledge  of  English.  This  makes  the 
first  work  with  them  difficult,  but  it  is  astonishing  how 
soon  they  learn  to  speak  and  sing.  Because  of  the  de- 
ficiency in  language  a  greater  degree  of  occupation  and 
constructive  work  is  given,  since  the  children  can  imitate 
the  teacher's  work  long  before  they  can  understand  or 
follow  language.  An  extensive  use  is  made  of  pictures  and 
objects.  The  kindergartner  is  obliged  to  employ  more 
than  the  usual  amount  of  rhythm  and  physical  culture 
work,  as  the  little  bodies  are  stiff  and  untrained.  Many 
more  than  the  usual  number  of  games  are  played,  and 
here  again  the  progress  is  remarkable.  Much  time  has 
been  devoted  to  nature  study,  illustrated  by  construction 
work,  in  many  cases  exceptionally  good  considering 
the  little  hands  that  made  it.  Fairy  stories,  patriotism, 
courage,  kindness,  and  gentleness  have  been  illustrated 
in  this  way,  and  also  by  free-hand  cutting,  drawing,  and 
water  coloring. 

"In  1903  an  exhibit  of  kindergarten  work  was  made  at 
the  Colorado  State  Fair  held  in  Pueblo,  and  the  diploma 
awarded  for  the  best  work  was  given  to  our  display. 
A  much  more  complete  display  was  sent  to  St.  Louis,  where 
it  attracted  considerable  attention  because  of  its  unique 
character  and  excellent  workmanship.  Whole  mining 
camps,  farmyards,  houses  and  barns,  gardens,  windmills, 


PERIOD  OF  extension;    temperance  work,  etc.     121 

kindergarten  rooms,  four  and  five  roomed  houses,  each 
room  furnished  appropriately,  and  all  made  by  the  little 
children,  were  among  the  features  of  the  display." 

The  benefit  that  the  children  derive  from  the  work  of 
the  kindergarten  is  not  the  only  one  aimed  at  in  such  work 
as  this.  "From  two  standpoints  the  kindergarten  is  a 
factor  of  more  than  average  importance,"  says  one  of  the 
reports.  "Not  only  does  it  begin  the  all-round  develop- 
ment of  the  child  at  the  most  impressionable  period,  but 
it  is  in  this  field  the  master  key  to  the  whole  social  better- 
ment situation.  The  kindergarten  has  had  far  more 
success  than  any  other  institution  in  dealing  with  our 
foreign  people.  By  careful  and  tactful  visitation  and 
invitation  the  kindergartner  dispels  suspicion  and  secures 
the  patronage  of  all  nationalities.  It  enables  her  to  get 
into  the  homes  and  win  the  confidence  of  the  mothers. 
Then  mothers'  clubs  are  formed.  In  one  camp  there  is 
a  club  of  fifty  members.  In  another  a  child  study  club 
is  successfully  carried  on.  This  is  composed  entirely 
of  English-speaking  mothers.  In  still  other  camps 
mothers'  meetings  are  carried  on,  foreign  mothers  attend- 
ing, and  music  and  industrial  work  supplying  the  place  of 
papers  and  discussions.  In  nearly  every  instance  the 
foreign  mothers  have  taken  an  interest  in  this  social  better- 
ment work  as  far  as  they  have  been  able  to  understand, 
and  especially  have  the  calls  of  the  kindcrgartners  and 
the  little  entertainments  of  the  kindergarten  children  been 
instrumental  in  winning  the  way  to  their  hearts."  With 
such  a  variety  of  nationalities  it  is  not  strange  that  a 


122      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

knowledge  of  Spanish  and  Italian  should  be  required  on 
the  part  of  the  kindergartners. 

One  is  tempted  to  dwell  at  too  great  a  length  upon  the 
admirable  work  done  by  this  company.  "The  spread 
of  the  kindergarten  movement  during  the  past  twenty  or 
thirty  years  had  been  a  significant  part  in  the  educational 
life  of  America.  But  kindergartens  in  a  mining  com- 
munity supported  entirely  by  a  mining  corporation  are, 
as  far  as  we  know,  unknown  outside  the  camps  of  the 
Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron  Company,"  says  Dr.  Corwin, 
with  justifiable  pride.  The  company  thoroughly  under- 
stands the  principles  upon  which  the  kindergarten  is 
based,  and  appreciates  the  fact  that  by  its  means  from 
one  to  two  years  are  added  to  the  children's  school  life. 
Since  at  least  25  per  cent  of  the  camp  children  do  not 
complete  the  eighth  grade,  this  is  of  the  greatest  value. 
The  work  done  by  this  company  is  an  object  lesson  to  the 
whole  country  of  what  may  be  done  in  an  industrial 
community  in  the  direction  of  educational  and  social 
betterment,  by  wisely  directed  humanitarian  effort. 

Within  recent  years  the  kindergarten  has  also  been 
taken  up  by  several  of  the  cotton  mill  owners  of  the 
Southern  states.  Detailed  information  concerning  these 
has  been  difficult  to  obtain.  Among  the  mills  in  which 
kindergartens  are  known  to  have  been  established  are 
the  Elsas,  and  the  Exposition  Cotton  Mills  of  Atlanta, 
the  Millingham  Mills  of  Columbus,  Ga.,  the  Avondale 
Mills  in  Alabama,  the  Richland,  Olympia,  and  Granby 
Mills  of  Columbia,  S.C.,  and  the  Pelzer  Mills  of  Pelzer, 


PERIOD  OF  EXTENSION ;    TEMPERANCE  WORK,  ETC.     1 23 

in  the  same  state.  The  Eagle  and  Phoenix  Company 
has  opened  two  kindergartens  within  the  past  three  years, 
one  in  Girard  and  one  in  Phoenix  City,  each  of  which 
will  accommodate  seventy-five  or  more  children.  The 
building  at  Girard  was  recently  described  as  elegant  and 
attractive,  an  ornament  to  the  part  of  the  city  in  which 
it  is  situated.  The  interior  is  of  Georgia  pine  and  the 
furniture  is  of  the  same  material  and  finish.  It  has  the 
needed  cloakrooms,  a  bathroom,  an  anteroom,  and  a 
raised  platform  in  the  main  room  for  the  accommodation 
of  visitors.  The  provision  for  the  comfort  and  happiness 
of  the  children  is  not  confined  to  the  building  alone. 
An  outdoor  gymnasium,  equipped  with  all  necessary 
apparatus,  and  flower  and  vegetable  gardens,  give  the 
children  opportunity  for  play  and  exercise  out  of  doors. 
The  grounds  are  ornamental  as  well  as  ample,  and 
serve  as  an  ideal  for  the  beautification  of  lawns  and 
dooryards. 

Judging  from  an  item  that  appeared  in  one  of  the  kinder- 
garten periodicals  shortly  before  these  kindergartens  were 
opened,  the  idea  originated  at  least  in  part  with  the  opera- 
tives themselves.  It  stated  that  "the  Central  Federation 
of  Labor,  composed  of  representatives  of  all  the  labor 
unions  of  Columbus  and  of  the  Alabama  suburbs  of 
Phoenix  and  Girard,  is  planning  with  the  aid  of  Mr. 
George  J.  Baldwin,  a  prominent  Savannah  capitalist 
who  has  extensive  interests  in  Columbus,  to  start  a  kinder- 
garten for  the  children  of  the  working  population.  This 
is,  so  far  as  known,  the  first  attempt  made  anywhere  by 


124     THE  KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

trades'  unions  to  promote  an  educational  idea."  In 
these  kindergartens,  as  in  others  of  the  kind,  the  company 
pays  all  the  expense,  the  salaries  of  the  kindergartners 
included.  Other  business  firms  that  are  known  to  sup- 
port kindergartens  as  a  part  of  their  welfare  work  are  the 
Solvay  Process  Company,  of  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  the  Illinois 
Steel  Company  of  Joliet,  111.,  the  Plymouth  Cordage 
Company  of  Plymouth,  Mass.,  and  the  Bardeen  Paper 
Company  of  Otsego,  Mich.  With  the  present  interest 
in  welfare  work,  the  example  of  these  firms  will  doubtless 
be  followed  by  others  in  the  near  future. 

The  adoption  of  the  kindergarten  by  these  different 
agencies,  religious,  philanthropic,  and  educational,  has 
been  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  kindergarten  and  to 
education  in  general.  It  has  interested  thousands  of 
women  in  education  that  would  not  otherwise  have  made 
a  study  of  educational  problems.  It  has  given  them  nobler 
conceptions  of  motherhood  and  childhood,  and  acquainted 
them  with  the  fundamental  principles  of  child  training. 
The  connection  with  an  organization  interested  in  kinder- 
garten advancement  has  broadened  the  range  of  many 
women's  interests.  It  acquainted  them  with  the  problems 
of  the  city,  social,  economic,  educational,  and  religious. 
It  showed  them  the  need  for  philanthropic  effort,  and  led 
them  to  an  appreciation  of  the  character  that  such  effort 
should  assume.  It  awakened  many  to  the  appeal  that 
beauty  makes  to  a  little  child  and,  as  a  result,  to  the  value 
of  art  in  popular  education.  It  did  much  to  bring  about 
the  acceptance  of  the  new  educational  ideals  and  un- 


PERIOD  OF  EXTENSION ;    TEMPERANCE  WORK,  ETC.     1 25 

doubtedly  influenced  the  character  of  education  in  women's 
colleges. 

As  to  the  kindergarten  itself,  one  can  only  guess  what 
its  present  status  would  have  been  had  not  the  influence 
of  these  different  agencies  —  the  church,  the  settlement, 
and  others  of  a  like  character  —  been  exerted  in  its  behalf. 
The  footsteps  of  its  progress  would  have  been  slow  indeed 
to  all  appearances,  had  it  depended  upon  the  school 
alone.  It  would  have  lacked,  also,  the  many-sided  inter- 
pretation that  has  made  it  a  significant  influence  in  Ameri- 
can life.  The  church  has  called  attention  to  the  religious 
aspect  of  its  doctrine;  philanthropic  organizations  have 
called  public  attention  to  its  social  significance;  and  the 
school  has  pointed  out  the  educational  value  of  its  under- 
lying principles.  But  each  is  a  part  of  the  whole,  and  in 
emphasizing  the  different  aspects  of  the  Froebelian  doc- 
trine, each  of  these  agencies  has  aided  in  interpreting 
the  whole.  It  is  the  Froebelian  doctrine  in  its  entirety 
that  is  making  the  kindergarten  the  influence  in  American 
life  that  it  is  to-day. 

But  these  facts,  which  are  gratefully  acknowledged  by 
every  intelligent  kindergartner,  should  not  blind  the  stu- 
dent of  the  movement  to  certain  disadvantages  that  have 
resulted  from  the  adoption  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  phil- 
anthropic agency.  One  of  these  disadvantages  arises 
from  the  close  connection  that  has  been  established  in 
the  public  mind  between  the  kindergarten  and  the  creche 
or  day  nursery.  The  two  have  frequently  been  estab- 
lished  together,   both   serving   a   philanthropic   purpose. 


126     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

In  consequence  the  kindergarten  is  regarded  by  thousands 
as  being  little  if  anything  more  than  an  advanced  form 
of  the  day  nursery,  whose  purpose  is  served  if  the  children 
are  kept  clean,  happy,  and  off  the  streets.  Many  mission 
kindergartens  unfortunately  justify  this  impression.  The 
large  number  of  children  frequently  enrolled,  —  much 
too  large  for  effective  work,  —  the  economy  exercised  in 
the  use  of  material,  the  low  salaries  paid,  —  these  and 
other  conditions  that  too  frequently  prevail  in  philanthropic 
work,  have  done  much  to  obscure  the  real  educational 
value  of  the  kindergarten.  In  speaking  of  the  kinder- 
garten as  a  charity  agency,  and  having  in  mind  the  con- 
ditions mentioned.  Professor  Earl  Barnes  says,  "A  silver 
spoon  may  be  a  very  good  instrument  to  scrape  an  iron 
kettle  with,  but  it  is  very  hard  on  the  spoon." 

The  deterioration  of  the  kindergarten  itself  under  the 
conditions  too  frequent  in  the  charity  kindergarten  and 
the  obscuring  of  its  educational  significance  to  the  public 
are  not  the  only  disadvantages  arising  from  its  adoption 
as  a  charity  agency.  The  mission  kindergartner  often 
undertook  her  work  as  a  labor  of  love  and  asked  for  no 
remuneration.  If  salaries  were  paid  they  were  wholly 
out  of  proportion  to  the  services  rendered.  The  kinder- 
gartners'  services  therefore  did  not  reach  a  true  valuation 
in  the  educational  labor  market.  When  the  kindergarten 
became  a  part  of  the  public  school  system  this  occasioned 
difficulties  that  in  many  places  have  not  even  yet  been 
satisfactorily  adjusted.  Salary  conditions  are  improving 
in  the  kindergarten  world,  but  many  kindergartners  are 


PERIOD  OF  EXTENSION ;    TEMPERANCE  WORK,  ETC.     1 27 

Still  suffering  from  the  conditions  that  first  determined 
the  salaries  paid. 

The  adoption  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  charity  had 
another  result  from  which  the  kindergarten  of  the  present 
is  suffering.  That  the  kindergarten  training  could  not 
be  other  than  superficial  when  the  purpose  of  the  organi- 
zation that  provided  it  was  fundamentally  philanthropic 
has  been  elsewhere  stated.  The  standard  of  entrance 
could  not  be  high  under  such  conditions,  or  the  number 
of  students  would  be  too  small  to  carry  out  the  philan- 
thropy in  question.  The  training  teacher  or  teachers 
employed  could  not  be  of  the  best,  as  the  conditions  of  the 
treasury  made  it  impossible.  The  time  for  theoretical 
training  must  be  limited,  since  the  students  were  needed 
for  practical  work  in  the  kindergartens.  In  consequence 
many  poorly  trained  kindergartners  were  sent  out.  To 
bring  kindergarten  training  out  of  the  condition  which 
gave  it  its  present  form,  and  to  place  it  on  a  level  with 
training  given  to  other  teachers,  is  one  of  the  pressing 
problems  in  the  kindergarten  to-day. 

The  disadvantages  which  the  kindergarten  has  suf- 
fered from  its  adoption  by  some  of  the  agencies  named 
are,  however,  more  than  offset  by  the  advantages  it  derived 
from  such  adoption.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  kindergarten 
association,  the  church,  and  the  settlement,  the  circle  of 
those  to  whom  the  kindergarten  is  known  would  have 
been  a  limited  one;  as  a  result  of  the  efforts  of  these 
agencies,  it  is  known  to  every  person  of  intelligence 
throughout  the  country.     In  this  and  other  respects  too 


128     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

many  to  be  enumerated  the  services  which  philanthropy 
and  religion  have  rendered  the  kindergarten  cause  can- 
not be  overestimated  and  kindergartners  everywhere  are 
grateful  that  their  beloved  institution  has  been  deemed 
worthy  of  such  support. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

The  Period  of  Extension;  The  Kindergarten  and 
Educational  Organizations  and  Exhibitions 

The  growing  appreciation  of  the  kindergarten  during 
the  first  few  years  of  the  new  decade  recorded  in  the  last 
chapters  was  mainly  outside  of  the  teaching  ranks.  It 
was  natural  and  fitting  that  the  doctrines  of  Froebel 
should  appeal  first  to  mothers,  and  proof  of  their  funda- 
mental value  that  such  was  the  case.  But  a  movement 
of  such  vigor  and  power  could  not  fail  to  make  an  impres- 
sion upon  educators,  and  even  if  they  had  turned  a  deaf 
ear  to  kindergarten  appeals,  the  insistence  of  the  kinder- 
garten advocates  within  the  teaching  ranks,  cooperating 
with  the  body  of  enthusiasts  in  the  larger  world,  would 
eventually  have  compelled  them  to  listen.  The  increasing 
Froebel  ian  literature,  the  growing  approval  of  kinder- 
garten theory,  the  proved  adaptability  of  the  kinder- 
garten to  public  school  conditions,  and  the  increasing 
emphasis  upon  the  aesthetic  element  in  education,  — 
all  these  were  influences  tending  toward  its  ultimate 
adoption  by  the  school. 

But  the  educational  leaders  themselves  began  to  take 
steps  to  bring  the  kindergarten  before  the  teachers  of  the 
country.  The  educational  press  and  educational  organi- 
K  129 


130      THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

zations  —  state  and  national  —  have  played  a  most  impor- 
tant part  in  advancing  the  kindergarten  cause.  At 
its  first  meeting  in  1872  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion had  presented  the  doctrines  of  Froebel  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  American  educational  public,  and  before 
1880  the  cause  of  the  kindergarten  had  been  given  several 
hearings  before  that  body.  But  something  more  was 
needed  than  an  occasional  presentation  of  the  kindergarten 
on  the  general  program,  and  at  the  meeting  at  Madison, 
in  1884,  steps  were  taken  by  which  a  kindergarten  depart- 
ment was  created.  This  was  an  important  step  for  both 
kindergarten  and  general  education.  The  program  of 
the  National  Educational  Association  had  not  been  of 
such  a  character  as  to  attract  kindergartners  to  its  meet- 
ings, and  such  meetings  as  the  kindergartners  had  held 
themselves  had  been  attended  by  few  if  any  of  the  teachers 
and  superintendents  of  the  country.  The  organization 
of  the  kindergarten  department  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association  was  therefore  an  important  step  in 
taking  the  kindergarten  out  of  its  isolation  and  giving 
it  a  place  in  the  general  educational  system.  If  the  kinder- 
gartners hoped  for  the  ultimate  adoption  of  the  kinder- 
garten by  the  school,  they  needed  to  acquaint  themselves 
further  with  school  problems  and  conditions  and  if  the 
school  was  to  incorporate  the  kindergarten  into  the  general 
system  of  education,  the  teachers  needed  an  added  famil- 
iarity with  its  aims  and  methods.  What  better  means 
could  be  devised  to  acquaint  each  with  the  purposes  of 
the  other?     At  the  first  meeting  of  the  department  at 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   organizations,  etc.     131 

Saratoga,  the  president,  W.  N.  Hailman,  thus  stated  the 
main  purpose  of  those  who  had  taken  the  initiative  in 
bringing  about  its  organization.  "To  secure  a  thorough 
testing  and  sifting  of  kindergarten  principles  and  methods, 
and  to  devise  ways  and  means  for  the  full  and  generous 
application  of  what  may  be  found  valuable  and  available 
in  the '  educational  work  of  the  school.  The  efficiency 
of  the  kindergarten  in  the  unfolding  and  filling  of  child 
life  in  its  earliest  stages  has  been  brought  to  the  petitioners 
(for  the  creation  of  the  department)  so  unmistakably, 
that  they  yearn  to  secure  for  the  school  the  powerful  and 
beneficent  influences  involved.  The  chief  problems  which 
they  hope  the  kindergarten  department  to  solve  are : 

First:  What  are  the  principles  and  methods  by  which 
the  kindergarten  arouses  even  in  little  children,  so  deep, 
broad,  and  generous  an  interest  in  life  and  the  things  of 
life  ?  How  does  it  at  so  early  a  period  in  child  life  secure 
that  thoughtful  mastery  of  self  and  surroundings  which 
is  the  root  of  all  character  and  efficiency  in  life?  How 
does  it  secure  that  rounded  and  complete  living  that 
neglects  no  faculty,  strains  no  faculty,  docs  violence  to  no 
faculty,  but  leads  them  all  into  a  healthy  growing  activity 
that  makes  life  consciously  worth  living  at  every  step? 

Second  :  To  what  extent  do  these  principles  and  methods 
apply  to  the  period  of  school  life? 

In  the  twenty-two  years  that  have  passed  since  the  or- 
ganization of  the  department,  the  National  Educational 
Association  has  met  in  the  following  cities,  in  the  order 
named:    Saratoga,    Topeka,    Chicago,    San    Francisco, 


132      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

Nashville,  St.  Paul,  Toronto,  Saratoga,  Milwaukee, 
Washington,  Asbury  Park,  Denver,  Buffalo,  Los  Angeles, 
Charleston,  Detroit,  Minneapolis,  Boston,  St.  Louis, 
New  York,  and  Los  Angeles.  The  benefit  of  these 
meetings  to  the  kindergarten  cause  is  simply  incalculable. 
The  importance  of  the  occasion  and  the  character  of  the 
audience  has  stimulated  every  kindergartner  who  has 
appeared  on  the  program  to  her  very  best  effort.  The  cause 
of  the  kindergarten  has  been  strengthened  in  every  com- 
munity in  which  the  meetings  have  been  held, because  of  the 
presence  of  the  leaders  in  the  movement.  The  thousands  of 
programs  sent  out  and  reports  published  have  familiarized 
the  public  with  every  phase  of  kindergarten  effort.  Oppor- 
tunity has  been  afforded  the  kindergarten  leaders  to 
become  personally  acquainted  with  the  men  and  women 
who  are  shaping  the  direction  of  general  education.  To 
the  Association  it  brought  the  stimulus  of  fresh  and  vital 
problems;  the  reenforcement  resulting  from  the  influence 
of  a  new  and  enthusiastic  body  of  workers ;  and  a  general 
increase  in  educational  intelligence  and  interest.  The 
reports  of  the  early  meetings  indicate  that  the  car  of  kinder- 
garten progress  did  not  always  move  as  smoothly  and 
rapidly  as  its  friends  could  have  wished.  "The  new 
department  was  forced  to  work  its  way  in  the  midst  of 
great  discouragements,  outside  as  well  as  inside  the  edu- 
cational profession,"  said  one  writer.  "It  was  brought, 
like  all  similar  reform  movements,  face  to  face  with 
prejudice,  skepticism,  ignorance,  and  ridicule.  It  held  its 
own,  however,  from  year  to  year,  presented  an  annual 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   organizations,  etc.     133 

program  to  its  members,  gaining  here  a  little  more  respect, 
there  a  trifle  more  encouragement  and  vantage  ground. 
One  by  one  progressive  educators  paused  in  passing  by 
the  kindergarten  door  to  hear  what  was  being  said  inside." 
But  the  interest  continued  to  grow,  and  at  the  Nashville 
meeting  the  attendance  is  said  to  have  exceeded  that  at 
the  general  meeting.  In  connection  with  the  Toronto 
meeting  the  department  was  spoken  of  as  the  live  depart- 
ment of  the  Association,  The  kindergarten  did  not  fail 
to  utilize  the  increasing  interest,  and  the  cause  prospered. 

During  recent  years  the  kindergarten  cause  has  been 
materially  strengthened  in  the  South  by  the  addition  of  a 
kindergarten  department  to  the  Southern  Educational 
Association,  the  second  largest  educational  organization 
in  the  United  States.  The  first  meeting  of  the  newly 
organized  department  was  held  in  connection  with  the 
meeting  at  New  Orleans  in  1898.  Other  meetings  of  that 
body  have  been  held  in  Memphis,  Richmond,  Columbia, 
S.C.,  and  in  other  of  the  larger  Southern  cities.  The 
program  of  the  kindergarten  department  has  been  most 
excellent  in  every  case,  and  the  influence  of  the  meetings 
upon  the  growth  of  kindergarten  sentiment  in  the  South 
has  been  very  marked.  They  have  brought  into  promi- 
nence the  kindergarten  workers  of  the  South,  who  have 
been  too  far  removed  from  the  kindergarten  centers  in 
other  sections  of  the  country  to  be  adequately  known 
and  recognized. 

The  Saratoga  meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation in  1892  is  a  memorable  one  in  the  annals  of  kinder- 


134      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

garten  history,  since  it  was  at  that  time  and  place  that 
the  International  Kindergarten  Union  was  organized,  — 
now  the  third  largest  educational  organization  in  the 
country.  This  was  brought  about  as  a  result  of  a  two- 
fold need.  The  first  was  that  of  a  greater  consolidation  of 
the  growing  kindergarten  interests  than  even  the  National 
Educational  Association  could  offer;  and  the  second  was 
the  making  of  a  convincing  presentation  of  the  kinder- 
garten cause  at  the  approaching  Columbian  Exposition. 
The  official  report  of  the  organization  of  the  International 
Kindergarten  Union  reads  as  follows :  "At  the  time  of  the 
thirty-second  annual  meeting  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  held  at  Saratoga  Springs,  in  July,  1892,  a 
meeting  of  kindergarten  training  teachers,  presidents  of 
kindergarten  associations,  and  others  actively  interested 
in  the  kindergarten  movement,  was  held  in  the  Baptist 
Church  on  the  morning  of  July  15th  to  consider  a  propo- 
sition made  by  Miss  Sarah  A.  Stewart,  of  Philadelphia, 
to  make  some  formal  organization  of  the  kindergarten  in- 
terests throughout  the  country  and  also  to  prepare  the 
way  for  a  fitting  representation  of  this  department  of 
work  at  the  Columbian  Exposition  in  1893.  ^^  ^^^ 
unanimously  resolved  at  this  meeting  that  such  an  organi- 
zation was  desirable  and  that  a  committee  of  seven  be 
elected  by  ballot  to  take  the  matter  under  further  consider- 
ation ;  to  prepare  plans  for  the  organization,  and  to  report 
at  the  afternoon  session  of  the  kindergarten  department 
of  the  National  Educational  Association.  The  committee 
consisted  of  the  following  members:  Mrs.  Ada  Marean 


PERIOD   OF  extension;     ORGANIZATIONS,   ETC.      135 

Hughes,  Toronto;  Miss  Angeline  Brooks,  New  York 
City;  Miss  Sarah  A.  Stewart,  Philadelphia;  Miss  Mary 
C.  McCulloch,  St.  Louis;  Miss  Annie  Laws,  Cincinnati. 
The  remaining  two  members  who  were  elected,  Mrs. 
Sarah  B.  Cooper,  San  Francisco,  and  Miss  Lucy  Wheelock, 
Boston,  were  unfortunately  absent. 

At  the  afternoon  session  of  the  kindergarten  department, 
the  report  of  the  committee  was  read  by  the  chairman, 
Miss  Stewart,  recommending  the  organization  of  a  Na- 
tional Kindergarten  Union  which  would  in  no  way  antag- 
onize the  kindergarten  department  of  the  N.  E.  A.  but 
would  act  in  sympathy  and  harmony  with  it,  only  extend- 
ing the  field  of  work  more  widely  than  the  department  of 
the  N.  E.  A.  had  as  yet  been  able  to  do.  The  report  was 
accepted,  and  it  was  decided  to  form  a  temporary  organ- 
ization to  further  consider  the  matter.  Miss  Stewart 
was  made  chairman  and  Miss  Laws  secretary  of  the  tem- 
porary organization. 

After  some  discussion  it  was  decided  that  an  association 
be  formed  under  the  name  of  the  "International  Kinder- 
garten Union."  The  aims  of  the  Union  were  to  be  as 
follows: — 

1.  To  gather  and  disseminate  knowledge  of  the  kinder- 
garten movement  throughout  the  world. 

2.  To  bring  into  active  cooperation  all  kindergarten 
interests. 

3.  To  promote  the  establishment  of  kindergartens. 

4.  To  elevate  the  standard  of  professional  training  of 
kindergartners. 


136     THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

The  special  aim  for  1893  will  be  to  give  as  complete 
an  exhibition  as  possible  of  kindergarten  progress  in  the 
world,  at  the  Columbian  Exposition. 

The  officers  elected  were,  —  President,  Mrs.  Sarah  B. 
Cooper,  San  Francisco;  First  Vice  President,  Miss  Sarah 

A.  Stewart,  Philadelphia;  Second  Vice  President,  Miss 
Laliah  Pingree,  Boston;  Corresponding  Secretary,  Miss 
Caroline  T.  Haven,  New  York;  Recording  Secretary, 
Miss  Mary  McCuUoch,  St.  Louis;    Treasurer,  Miss  Eva 

B.  Whitmore,  Chicago. 

In  commenting  upon  the  step  taken.  Miss  Hofer,  of  The 
Kindergarten  Magazine,  said:  "Great  credit  is  due  Miss 
Sarah  Stewart  of  Philadelphia,  who  so  ably  proposed  and 
outlined  such  action,  and  who,  as  temporary  chairman,  car- 
ried the  proceedings  of  organization  in  the  most  creditably 
parliamentary  manner.  Mr.  W.  E.  Sheldon,  of  Boston, 
was  also  largely  instrumental  in  securing  so  strong  a  plan 
of  organization,  having  offered  many  valuable  and  practical 
suggestions.  It  is  due  to  his  foresight  and  knowledge 
of  the  minor  details  of  the  Association  at  large,  that  the 
Union  placed  itself  in  the  proper  relation  to  the  N.  E.  A., 
as  well  as  to  the  World's  Auxiliary  Congress,  to  both  of 
which  it  must  needs  be  subject  in  its  efforts  to  push  the 
educational  exhibit  of  1893."  '^^^  work  done  through 
the  combined  efforts  of  these  organizations  will  be  dis- 
cussed under  another  heading. 

The  I.  K.  U.  thus  owes  its  immediate  origin  to  the 
stimulus  of  a  great  occasion,  but  the  recognized  need  of 
an  organization  of  the  kindergartners  of  the  country  to 


PERIOD   OF  extension;     ORGANIZATIONS,   ETG.      137 

further  the  general  interests  of  the  kindergarten  move- 
ment would  doubtless  have  led  to  the  formation  of  such 
an  organization  at  no  distant  date.  There  had  been  two 
earlier  organizations  with  aims  almost  identical.  The 
first  of  these  was  the  American  Frocbel  Union,  which 
was  organized  in  Boston  in  1877  by  Miss  Peabody.  It 
had  held  several  meetings  in  Boston  and  one  in  New  York. 
In  Detroit  in  1879  a  Western  Kindergarten  Association 
was  organized,  the  meetings  of  which  were  held  in  Chicago 
and  Detroit  alternately.  The  organization  of  the  kinder- 
garten department  of  the  N.  E.  A.  in  1884  had,  however, 
seemed  to  make  the  continuance  of  these  organizations  un- 
necessary, and  for  eight  years  the  N.  E.  A.  meetings  had 
furnished  the  means  of  furthering  the  progress  of  the  kin- 
dergarten movement,  which  had  been  the  avowed  purpose 
of  both.  The  kindergarten  cause  had  made  great  progress 
during  these  years,  and  the  newly  formed  I.  K.  U.  started 
on  its  career  with  a  promise  of  success  and  influence  that 
would  have  been  impossible  to  the  earlier  organizations. 

During  the  year  following  the  Columbian  Exposition 
no  meeting  of  the  I.  K.  U.  was  held.  In  1895  it  was  an 
affiliated  body  with  the  National  Council  of  Women  on 
the  one  hand,  and  with  the  N.  E.  A.  on  the  other,  and  a 
meeting  was  held  with  each  of  these  organizations  during 
the  year.  The  first  was  held  in  Washington  in  the  early 
spring.  The  National  Council  of  Women  devoted  one 
day  to  this  department,  which  took  its  place  as  one  of  the 
great  national  bodies  which  compose  that  Federation. 
The  leading  kindergartners  of  the  country  addressed  large 


138     THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

and  appreciative  audiences  upon  subjects  of  kindergarten 
interest.  At  the  meeting  of  the  N.  E.  A.  at  Denver, 
"the  regular  kindergarten  department  of  the  N.  E.  A. 
proved  so  very  full  and  interesting  under  the  able  manage- 
ment of  Miss  Amalie  Hofer,"  says  the  secretary,  Miss 
Stewart,  "that  the  I.  K.  U.  seemed  in  danger  of  losing 
its  separate  existence.  However,  a  grand  rally  was  made 
at  the  close  of  the  convention  and  very  stalwart  work 
was  done  in  the  line  of  business." 

The  secretary  says,  further:  "The  crowded  condition 
of  the  programs  of  the  N.  E.  A.,  owing  to  the  large  and 
growing  number  of  its  departments,  made  it  seem  necessary 
to  appoint  a  separate  time  and  place  of  meeting  for  the 
I.  K.  U.  The  Denver  meeting  forms  the  point  of  depar- 
ture. It  takes  its  place  in  the  history  of  the  organization 
only  as  a  business  meeting,  where  the  effort  was  made 
simply  to  make  time,  and  to  appoint  strong  officers  to 
organize  and  maintain  a  separate  existence.  Whether 
the  separation  from  the  two  large  bodies  with  which  it 
had  been  afiEiliated  was  wise  or  unwise,  as  a  settled  policy, 
remains  to  be  seen." 

The  first  occasion  at  which  the  I.  K.  U.  met  as  a  sep- 
arate organization  was  the  meeting  held  at  Teachers 
College,  New  York,  February  14,  1896.  This  was  the 
first  meeting  at  which  the  general  work  for  which  it  was 
organized  was  taken  up,  and  its  present  working  machinery 
evolved.  It  was  a  meeting  of  a  handful  of  leaders  only, 
but  it  was  fruitful  in  suggestions  for  future  work.  The 
meeting  at  St.  Louis  the  following  year  was  the  first  of 


PERIOD  OF  extension;    organizations,  etc.     139 

the  larger  meetings  which  have  since  come  to  have  a 
value  for  the  kindergartner  in  the  ranks  as  well  as  for  the 
leaders  who  are  shaping  the  course  of  kindergarten  prog- 
ress. This  meeting  was  made  memorable  by  the  presence 
of  the  Baroness  von  Buelow-Wendhausen,  the  niece  of 
Froebel's  foremost  disciple  and  co-worker. 

The  succeeding  meetings  of  the  I.  K.  U.  have  been  held 
as  follows:  In  Philadelphia  in  1898;  in  Cincinnati  in 
1899;  in  Brooklyn  in  1900;  in  Chicago  in  1901 ;  in  Boston 
in  1902;  in  Pittsburg  in  1903;  in  Rochester  in  1904; 
in  Toronto  in  1905;  in  Milwaukee  in  1906;  and  in  New 
York  City  in  1907.  The  growing  numbers  and  the  in- 
creasing size  of  the  meetings  have  given  it  an  added  impor- 
tance in  recent  years,  and  it  is  now  ranked  as  the  third 
largest  educational  organization  in  the  country. 

That  the  I.  K.  U.  has  done  much  to  give  unity,  dignity, 
and  momentum  to  the  kindergarten  movement  all  will 
admit.  The  adaptation  of  the  kindergarten  to  American 
life  and  education  was  no  simple  problem.  Experiments 
were  being  made  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  by 
independent  workers,  under  conditions  totally  different. 
An  all-round  development  of  the  kindergarten  idea  could 
be  secured  only  by  a  comparison  of  these  experiments. 
A  premature  and  one-sided  crystallization  of  kindergarten 
interpretation  and  procedure  could  only  be  avoided  by 
the  same  agency.  The  I.  K.  U.  furnished  the  oppor- 
tunity for  comparisons;  it  acquainted  each  with  the  work 
that  others  were  doing.  The  kindergarten  of  the  future 
is  being  slowly  evolved  from  the  comparison  of  these  ex- 


140      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

periments,  and  not  the  kindergarten  only,  but  a  complete 
system  of  primary  education  grounded  in  the  principles 
of  Froebel.  In  furthering  this  evolution  the  I.  K.  U. 
has  rendered  a  lasting  service  to  the  kindergarten  and  to 
general  education.  But  it  has  done  more.  It  has  unified, 
strengthened,  and  dignified  kindergarten  training.  It  has 
brought  increasing  inspiration  to  the  kindergartner  in 
the  ranks  by  the  increasing  value  of  its  meetings.  Much 
remains  to  be  done  along  the  lines  of  investigation  and 
propagation,  and  though  the  kindergarten  department 
of  the  N.  E.  A.  and  the  I.  K.  U.  have  rendered  magnifi- 
cent service  in  furthering  the  kindergarten  movement, 
neither  can  as  yet  rest  upon  its  oars  in  the  satisfaction  of 
labor  accomplished. 

Among  the  many  agencies  for  bringing  the  kindergarten 
to  the  attention  of  the  public,  the  summer  schools  that  have 
sprung  up  everywhere  of  recent  years  must  be  given  an 
important  place.  These  have  been  of  many  kinds  and 
have  met  varying  needs.  Some  have  offered  instruction 
in  some  one  line;  the  curriculum  of  others  rivals  in  com- 
plexity that  of  the  modern  university.  At  the  head  of 
the  list  stands  Chautauqua.  To  some  Chautauqua  is 
little  more  than  a  beautiful  summer  resort;  to  others 
it  is  a  place  for  intellectual  stimulus  and  recreation;  to 
still  others  it  is  the  opportunity  for  quiet,  purposeful  study. 
When,  in  1879,  Chautauqua  added  its  "Teachers'  Retreat" 
to  its  many  attractions,  it  set  into  operation  a  most  effec- 
tive agency  for  influencing  the  educational  thought  of 
the  country.     For  here  teachers  could  see  and  hear  the 


PERIOD   OF  EXTENSION;     ORGANIZATIONS,   ETC.      141 

leaders  of  the  new  educational  gospel,  here  they  could 
acquaint  themselves  with  the  new  methods  that  were 
growing  in  favor  in  every  progressive  community;  here 
many  saw  a  kindergarten  in  operation  for  the  first  time, 
and  realized  the  difference  between  its  spirit  and  method 
and  that  in  vogue  in  the  school.  A  kindergarten  depart- 
ment was  added  to  the  educational  attractions  of  Chau- 
tauqua in  1881,  and  as  the  local  Chautauquas,  now  three 
hundred  or  more  in  number,  were  organized,  they  too 
included  the  kindergarten  in  their  list  of  agencies  for 
popular  instruction. 

The  Chautauqua  kindergartens  serve  a  double  purpose. 
Even  if  they  had  not  been  established  for  the  purpose  of 
instruction  in  the  newest  form  of  educational  procedure, 
they  would  have  been  organized  as  a  practical  necessity. 
Chautauqua  aims  to  provide  enjoyment  and  profit  for 
all  who  enter  its  gates,  and  shall  the  children  who  fre- 
quently must  accompany  their  parents  be  denied  their 
share  in  the  generous  provision?  Kellogg  Hall  is  as 
popular  with  Chautauqua  children  as  is  the  Hall  of  Phi- 
losophy with  adults,  and  the  kindergarten  circle  is  always 
filled.  The  children  are  not  the  only  ones  to  be  found  in 
the  kindergarten  rooms.  Every  available  space  is  occupied 
with  the  mothers  of  the  children,  members  of  the  obser- 
vation or  training  classes,  or  with  casual  visitors.  Here 
is  a  mother  from  a  distant  state  eager  to  have  her  child 
enjoy  the  advantages  of  the  wonderful  institution  of  which 
she  has  heard  and  read  so  much.  There  sits  a  minister 
from  a  Western  city  who  had  intended  to  stay  through  the 


142      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

opening  exercises  only,  but  who  has  forgotten  the  flight 
of  time  in  his  interest.  In  a  corner  sits  a  young  woman 
recording  every  detail  of  the  morning's  work.  She  has 
come  all  the  way  from  South  America.  "The  Chau- 
tauqua plan  is  perhaps  farther  reaching  in  its  effects 
than  any  other,  since  the  entire  country  contributes  its 
spectators,"  says  a  recent  writer,  and  even  the  slightest 
acquaintance  with  the  scope  of  work  at  any  of  the  larger 
Chautauquas  will  demonstrate  the  fact  that  as  a  missionary 
agency  for  the  kindergarten  cause,  it  is  unequaled.  In 
addition  to  the  kindergarten  proper,  there  are  classes  for 
at  least  three  groups  of  people.  There  is  always  a  class 
for  mothers,  some  of  whom  come  for  the  special  purpose 
of  getting  the  help  they  need  in  the  work  with  their  children. 
There  is  a  course  for  such  kindergartners  already  trained, 
who  wish  a  broader  outlook  and  the  opportunity  which 
the  occasion  affords  of  interchange  of  views  with  fellow- 
workers.  And  last  but  not  least  is  the  observation  class, 
which  includes  teachers  and  not  infrequently  ministers 
who  wish  to  acquaint  themselves  with  kindergarten  pro- 
cedure and  the  principles  that  underlie  it.  Chautauqua 
brings  many  interested  and  interesting  visitors  from  all 
parts  of  the  world.  Among  the  many  present  during  one 
summer  the  follow^ing  were  reported  as  belonging  to  one 
or  the  other  of  the  three  classes :  a  young  woman  from 
South  America  who  at  one  time  had  charge  of  a  kinder- 
garten in  the  gardens  of  the  Emperor  of  Brazil ;  a  kinder- 
gartner  from  one  of  the  leading  cities  of  Canada  who 
wished  suggestions  for  enlarging  the  scope  of  her  work; 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   organizations,  etc.     143 

the  principal  of  a  colored  school  in  the  South;  a  kinder- 
gartncr  from  India ;  a  home  missionary  from  New  Mexico ; 
a  teacher  in  a  government  Indian  School  in  Indian  Terri- 
tory; a  missionary  from  China;  a  young  woman  from 
South  Africa;  and  the  principal  of  a  state  normal  school. 
A  list  as  varied  and  interesting  could  doubtless  be  compiled 
each  season.  It  is  because  of  the  presence  of  such  people 
that  a  course  for  kindergartners  in  normal  schools  and 
primary  and  kindergarten  supervisors  has  been  organized 
of  late  for  the  consideration  of  the  larger  kindergarten 
problems. 

The  advantages  which  Chautauqua  offers  to  mothers, 
kindergartners,  and  teachers  are  not  confined  to  the  work 
of  the  kindergarten  department  only.  The  provision 
made  for  grade  teachers  is  as  ample  as  that  made  for 
kindergartners  and  mothers,  and  many  courses  are  offered 
which  are  of  equal  interest  to  all.  Courses  in  educational 
psychology  and  child  study,  in  children's  music  and  in 
art  in  the  kindergarten  and  primary  grades,  given  by 
specialists,  attract  both  kindergartners  and  teachers  and 
broaden  the  views  of  both.  Primary  teachers  acquire 
a  knowledge  of  the  kindergarten  almost  unconsciously, 
since  modern  methods  in  primary  work  are  based  upon 
kindergarten  principles.  The  work  at  Chautauqua 
has,  perhaps,  more  than  any  other  agency,  introduced 
the  kindergarten  to  ministers  and  Sunday  school  workers 
of  the  country.  Froebel's  views  concerning  the  child's 
spiritual  nature  are  being  increasingly  accepted,  and  in 
consequence  more  wholesome  methods  of  religious   in- 


144     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

struction  have  come  to  prevail.  Through  the  Chautauqua 
lectures  and  conferences  on  the  problems  of  the  child's 
spiritual  development  and  the  application  of  kindergarten 
principles  to  Sunday  school  work,  kindergarten  depart- 
ments are  becoming  the  rule  in  the  Sunday  schools  of 
the  country,  and  religion  is  taking  its  true  place  as  a 
means  toward  the  child's  highest  development.  In  all 
these  ways  Chautauqua  must  be  considered  as  one  of  the 
great  influences  in  furthering  the  kindergarten  movement. 

The  kindergarten  cause  in  the  South  has  been  mate- 
rially advanced  during  the  past  six  years  by  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Summer  School  of  the  South,  at  Knoxville, 
Tenn.  In  addition  to  the  kindergarten  which  is  in  session 
for  the  entire  six  weeks  it  has  provided  courses  in  child 
study  and  kindergarten  literature  for  kindergartners  and 
primary  teachers,  and  holds  kindergarten  and  other  con- 
ferences for  the  discussion  of  problems  relating  to  kinder- 
garten work.  In  1905  a  Southern  Kindergarten  Associa- 
tion was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  the  problems 
peculiar  to  kindergarten  work  in  the  South  and  making 
plans  for  its  more  general  introduction  in  that  section. 

The  many  summer  schools  of  methods,  held  in  different 
sections  of  the  country  during  recent  years,  have  been 
among  the  indirect  means  of  advancing  the  kindergarten 
cause,  and  frequently  the  direct  means  as  well.  The  first 
of  these  was  Martha's  Vineyard  Summer  Institute,  the 
Mecca  of  progressive  teachers  for  many  years.  Dexter 
says  of  this,  "It  must  be  placed  second  only  to  the  great 
assemblies  at  Chautauqua  in  the  breadth  of  its  influence 


PERIOD   OF  EXTENSION;     ORGANIZATIONS,   ETC.      1 45 

and  the  number  of  students  who  have  attended.  During 
its  history  nearly  every  educator  of  note  in  the  country 
has  appeared  upon  its  platform."  Kindergarten  speakers 
always  occupied  a  place  on  its  programs.  In  1885  the 
Saratoga  National  Summer  School  of  Methods  was 
organized.  This  was  later  combined  with  a  similar 
school  held  at  Round  Lake,  N.Y.,  and  later  still  with  the 
one  at  Glens  Falls,  N.Y.,  where  it  continued  its  work 
until  1897.  The  Cook  County  Summer  Normal,  at 
Chicago,  was  of  the  same  character.  Like  Chautauqua, 
these  schools  drew  the  progressive  and  aspiring  teachers 
by  the  courses  of  improved  methods  in  teaching  the  com- 
mon school  branches,  and  by  the  opportunity  afforded 
for  acquaintance  and  conference  with  other  progressive 
teachers.  The  leading  kindergartners  of  the  country 
gave  lectures  and  courses  of  work,  and  the  principles  of 
the  kindergarten  were  recognized  and  applied  in  the 
methods  of  teaching  grade  work.  The  summer  school 
held  at  La  Porte,  Ind.,  by  Professor  and  Mrs.  Hailman, 
aimed  directly  at  this.  In  this,  as  well  as  in  several  other 
summer  schools,  direct  and  special  courses  of  instruction 
in  kindergarten  work  as  such  were  given.  This  was 
true  of  the  summer  schools  held  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Chicago  Free  Kindergarten  Association,  of  the  Chicago 
Kindergarten  College,  of  the  Grand  Rapids  Kindergarten 
Association,  and  several  others.  Through  attendance  at 
these  schools  thousands  of  teachers  and  school  principals 
gained  new  educational  ideas  and  an  insight  into  the  new 
educational  doctrines.     Though  the  work  done  could  not 


146      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

but  be  superficial  in  many  instances,  the  summer  schools 
must  be  considered  as  an  influence  of  great  value  in 
furthering  the  new  education. 

The  service  that  expositions  and  exhibits  of  kinder- 
garten work  could  render  the  cause  of  kindergarten  prog- 
ress was  recognized  by  the  experiences  of  the  Philadel- 
phia Exposition.  Since  that  date  the  friends  of  the 
movement  have  not  been  slow  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
opportunities  that  have  presented  themselves.  One  of 
the  first  opportunities  utilized  was  the  Madison  meeting 
of  the  N.  E.  A.,  already  mentioned  as  marking  a  mile- 
stone in  kindergarten  progress.  This  was  the  first  time 
in  the  history  of  the  N.  E.  A.  that  an  organized  exhibit 
of  school  work  had  been  made,  and  the  kindergarten 
exhibit  was  "one  of  the  most  extensive  and  complete 
which  has  ever  been  made  of  kindergarten  work,"  says 
the  N.  E.  A.  record,  "a  surprise  to  every  one."  The 
work  of  the  kindergarten  exhibit  came  from  eighteen 
different  cities,  and  comprised  a  wide  range  of  institu- 
tions. The  system  that  was  seen  to  underlie  kinder- 
garten work  impressed  every  one,  and  many  additions 
were  made  to  the  roll  of  its  advocates.  Exhibits  of  school 
work  have  been  among  the  most  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive features  of  the  succeeding  meetings  of  the  N.  E.  A., 
and  the  kindergarten  has  been  more  or  less  adequately 
represented  at  each  one.  The  I.  K.  U.  has  made  inter- 
mittent and  spasmodic  efforts  to  have  an  exhibit  of  work 
in  connection  with  its  meetings,  but  in  the  judgment  of 
many  it  has  not  risen  to  its  opportunities  in  this  respect. 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   organizations,  etc.     147 

The  matter  of  an  exhibit  has  too  frequently  been  left  to 
the  ambition  of  individual  workers,  cities,  or  training 
schools,  and  there  has  been  no  concerted  effort  to  secure 
a  general  representation  of  kindergarten  work,  or  to 
bring  the  work  of  different  schools  of  kindergarten  inter- 
pretation into  comparison.  This  is  one  of  the  directions 
in  which  the  I.  K.  U.  can  profitably  direct  its  energy  in 
the  near  future. 

The  great  expositions  that  have  been  held  in  the  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  country  during  the  past  quarter 
century  have  furnished  many  opportunities  for  acquaint- 
ing the  general  public  with  the  merits  of  the  kinder- 
garten, and  in  the  case  of  the  Chicago  Exposition,  at  least, 
these  were  most  admirably  utilized.  The  New  Orleans 
Exposition  in  1885  furnished  the  first  of  these  occasions. 
A  kindergarten  was  conducted  by  Mrs.  Anna  J.  Ogden 
and  Miss  Mary  Crosby,  both  of  Washington,  during  the 
entire  period  that  the  exposition  was  in  session,  and 
attracted  great  and  favorable  attention.  A  kindergarten 
exhibit  had  also  been  prepared,  but  the  organization  of 
educational  exhibits  on  a  large  scale  had  not  received  the 
attention  at  that  time  that  it  has  received  since,  and  the 
exhibit  was  not  so  organized  and  placed  as  to  attract 
the  attention  that  it  deserved.  The  kindergarten  and  the 
exhibit  combined  did  much  to  awaken  kindergarten  in- 
terest, however,  in  the  South  particularly.  As  a  result 
of  the  effort  made,  and  of  the  place  given  the  kindergarten 
on  the  program  of  the  International  Congress  of  Educa- 
tion held  in  connection  with  the  exposition,  one  of  the 


148      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

friends  of  the  kindergarten  cause  said  that  "the  kinder- 
garten as  such  had  been  clearly  raised  from  its  former 
questionable  isolation  into  the  genial  and  friendly  com- 
panionship of  established  educational  forces." 

What  the  New  Orleans  Exposition  accomplished  in 
behalf  of  the  kindergarten  for  one  section  of  the  United 
States,  the  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  did  on  a 
large  scale  for  the  whole  country.  The  I.  K.  U.  was 
organized,  as  has  been  stated,  for  the  purpose  of  cooper- 
ating with  the  Board  of  Lady  Managers  in  devising  a  plan 
that  should  accomplish  the  purpose  desired.  No  ade- 
quate presentation  of  the  kindergarten  could  be  made  that 
did  not  portray  it  in  its  relation  to  the  whole  life  of  the 
child  from  the  modern-day  standpoint.  A  most  com- 
prehensive plan  was  therefore  formulated,  which  is 
indicated  in  part  from  the  official  circular,  which  read 
as  follows:  "Although  the  world  has  known  many  large 
expositions  at  various  times  in  its  history,  in  none  of  these 
have  the  interests  of  children  received  the  full  represen- 
tation that  they  deserved.  Such  great  progress  having 
been  made  during  the  present  century  in  the  methods 
of  educating,  amusing,  and  caring  for  the  physical 
well-being  of  the  coming  men  and  women,  it  seems  desir- 
able that  an  illustration  of  the  best  methods  should  be  so 
grouped  that  they  may  be  easily  assimilated  by,  and 
made  useful  to,  the  vast  number  of  people  who  will  visit 
the  World's  Fair.  In  many  cases  it  will  be  impossible 
for  the  mothers  to  visit  the  exposition  without  taking  their 
children,  and  in  so  doing  they  will  wish  the  little  ones  as 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   organizations,  etc.     149 

well  as  themselves  to  take  the  fullest  advantages  of  the 
educational  facilities  offered.  With  these  ends  in  view 
the  Children's  Building  has  been  designed,  which  will 
give  to  mothers  the  freedom  of  the  exposition  while  the 
children  themselves  are  enjoying  the  best  of  care  and 
attention." 

The  beautiful  Children's  Home,  "built  by  the  women 
of  the  world  for  the  world's  little  ones,"  was  ninety  by  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  perfectly  adapted  to  the  pur- 
poses it  was  intended  to  serve.  The  ground  floor  con- 
tained the  reception  rooms,  an  assembly  room,  a  com- 
pletely equipped  gymnasium,  and  several  nursery  rooms; 
and  the  second  the  kindergarten  room,  a  manual  training 
room,  a  court  for  a  playground,  and  several  other  rooms. 
"  Thinking  of  the  myriad  miles  of  bare  schoolroom  walls 
that  belt  the  country,  and  are  daily  gazed  at  by  thousands 
of  impressionable  school  children,  the  committee  sought 
to  give  illustrations  of  appropriate  art  for  children;  con- 
sequently, on  ceiling,  window,  frieze,  and  panel  were 
pictures  of  child  life  and  pastime,  or  representations  of 
the  world-old  stories  that  all  children  love  to  hear."  The 
decorating  of  the  interior  of  the  building  was  put  into  the 
hands  of  kindergartners,  the  making  typically  beautiful 
the  Children's  Palace,  and  displaying  the  possibilities 
of  wall  decorations,  for  school  and  home,  being  considered 
a  part  of  the  occasion. 

In  the  building  was  presented  the  best  thought  on  every 
phase  of  child  life.  A  series  of  manikins  was  shown,  to 
represent  the  manner  of  clothing  infants  in  the  different 


150      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

countries  of  the  world,  and  demonstrations  were  made  of 
the  most  heahhful  and  natural  methods  of  feeding,  dress- 
ing, and  caring  for  children,  according  to  modern  scientific 
theories.  The  nurseries  were  models  of  their  kind,  and 
gayly  decorated  booths  showed  the  toys  and  games  of  all 
nations.  Stereopticon  talks  upon  foreign  countries  were 
given  to  the  older  children  by  trained  kindergartners,  who 
then  took  them  in  groups  to  see  the  exhibits  from  the 
countries  in  question.  The  younger  children  were  taken 
charge  of  in  the  beautiful  kindergarten  rooms,  and  the 
mothers  given  an  opportunity  to  see  a  real  kindergarten 
in  operation.  The  Kindergarten  Literature  Company 
had  its  headquarters  here,  and  distributed  much  valuable 
information  concerning  the  kindergarten.  Another  op- 
portunity to  see  a  kindergarten  in  operation  was  given  in 
the  Illinois  State  Building,  where  a  kindergarten  was 
conducted  for  the  entire  six  months  by  the  joint  effort  of 
the  two  kindergarten  associations  of  Chicago,  the  Froebel 
Association  and  the  Free  Kindergarten  Association. 
"Two  equally  great  purposes  are  to  be  served  in  the 
public  presentation  of  the  kindergarten  at  the  World's 
Fair,"  Miss  Amalie  Hofer  had  said  in  The  Kindergarten 
Magazine.  "First,  the  attention  of  the  world  at  large 
is  to  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  new  education  is  opera- 
tive, and  the  public  is  to  be  shown  what  it  is  and  does. 
Second,  the  facts  illustrating  what  it  has  already  accom- 
plished are  to  be  arrayed  before  those  already  intelligent 
on  the  subject."  The  Children's  Building  was  one  of 
the    means    of    accomplishing    both    purposes.    Visiting 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   organizations,  etc.    151 

kindergartners  and  teachers  were  invited  to  make  the 
building  their  headquarters  while  at  the  exposition,  and 
the  opportunity  for  observation  which  it  afforded,  com- 
bined with  the  lectures  there  given  on  different  phases 
of  child  culture,  gave  to  many  a  teacher  an  entirely  new 
view  of  child  life  and  of  the  educational  process. 

The  Children's  Building  furnished  one  of  the  means  of 
acquainting  the  public  with  the  new  gospel  of  childhood. 
The  exhibits  and  the  congresses  furnished  others.  At 
the  time  the  educational  exhibits  seemed  quite  wonderful, 
although  the  better  organization  of  such  exhibits  at  the 
St.  Louis  Exposition  reveals  their  crudity  and  lack  of 
organization.  The  kindergarten  exhibits  w^re  generously 
sprinkled  in  among  the  general  school  exhibits,  some  of 
them  isolated,  and  others  in  relation  to  the  school  work 
of  which  the  kindergartens  formed  a  part.  The  casual 
visitors  could  not  fail  to  be  impressed  by  the  frequency 
with  which  the  kindergarten  announced  its  presence. 
That  it  had  come  to  stay  was  evident;  that  it  had  made 
its  impression  upon  grade  work  was  equally  evident. 
The  kindergartner  learned  many  lessons  by  seeing  her 
own  work  in  its  general  educational  perspective.  The 
school  principal  and  grade  teacher  could  not  but  marvel 
at  the  general  progress  of  the  kindergarten  movement. 
The  student  of  educational  progress  who  had  seen  the 
kindergarten  exhibits  of  earlier  years,  could  not  fail  to 
note  that  great  influences  were  at  work  in  the  kindergarten 
world.  The  larger  free  work  that  appeared  in  some  of 
the  exhibits  seemed  ugly  and  inartistic  to  many  in  con- 


152      THE  KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

trast  with  the  small  exact  work  to  which  they  were  accus- 
tomed. Others  saw  in  this  work  a  prophecy  for  the 
future.  The  evidences  of  the  new  movement  have  been 
accumulating  in  recent  years,  and  discussions  concerning 
it  wax  warm  in  kindergarten  circles.  But  of  this,  more 
later. 

To  many  kindergartners  the  educational  congresses 
furnished  the  crowning  inspiration  of  the  exposition.  The 
I.  K.  U.  held  a  department  meeting  in  the  World's  Con- 
gress of  Representative  Women,  to  set  forth  its  own  work 
and  to  discuss  topics  connected  with  it.  There  were 
two  kindergarten  congresses  under  separate  management, 
and  varying  largely  in  scope  and  character.  The  first 
of  these  was  the  special  kindergarten  congress,  which 
held  its  sessions  the  week  beginning  July  17th.  This 
was  presided  over  by  Wilham  N.  Hailman.  The  second 
was  the  meeting  of  the  kindergarten  section  of  the  Inter- 
national Congress  of  Education,  held  July  25th  to  28th, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  N.  E.  A.  This  was  in  charge 
of  Mrs.  Ada  M.  Hughes,  president  of  the  kindergarten 
department  of  the  N.  E.  A.  Both  congresses  brought 
an  earnest  body  of  workers  from  far  and  near,  who  spoke 
with  sincerity  and  conviction.  The  Special  Kindergarten 
Congress  opened  with  a  paper  on  Froebel  and  his  work, 
by  William  N.  Hailman.  Among  the  topics  and  speakers 
during  the  week  were  the  following:  "Every  mother 
a  kindergartner,"  Mrs.  Sarah  B.  Cooper,  San  Francisco. 
"The  place  of  music  in  the  kindergarten,"  W.  L.  Tomlins, 
choral  director  of  the  World's  Fair.     "The  professional 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   organizations,  etc.    153 

training  of  kindergartners,"  Mrs.  Eudora  L.  Hailman, 
La  Porte,  Ind.  "The  relation  of  play  to  work,"  Miss 
Angeline  Brooks,  New  York.  "  Froebel's  religious  views," 
a  discussion.  "The  influences  of  home  and  school  upon 
child  character,"  Miss  Constance  Mackenzie,  Philadelphia. 
"Elementary  science  teaching,"  Professor  Edward  G. 
Howe.  "Physical  culture,"  Baron  Nils  Posse  and 
Margaret  Morley.  A  full  morning  was  given  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  art  in  the  kindergarten,  Miss  Mary  Dana  Hicks 
leading.  For  one  day  the  kindergartners  and  the  manual 
training  and  art  teachers  met  in  joint  session.  The  sub- 
ject "Symbolism  in  early  education"  was  discussed  by 
Mrs.  Marion  Foster  Washburne,  and  other  appropriate 
topics  were  presented  by  Mrs.  Louise  Parsons  Hopkins 
of  Boston  and  Professor  James  L.  Hughes  of  Toronto. 
The  closing  session  of  the  week  was  held  on  Sunday 
afternoon,  when  Miss  Lucy  Wheelock  of  Boston,  Miss 
Anna  Bryan  of  Chicago,  and  Miss  Annie  Howe  of  Japan 
discussed  the  relation  of  the  kindergarten  to  church  and 
Sunday  school  work. 

The  kindergarten  section  of  the  International  Congress 
of  Education  held  three  forenoon  sessions.  The  topics 
for  discussion  had  been  carefully  outlined  by  Commissioner 
William  T.  Harris,  under  whose  general  direction  the  con- 
gresses were  held.  The  general  topic  selected  for  dis- 
cussion at  the  first  meeting  was  "The  essential  character- 
istics of  the  kindergarten  as  distinguished  from  the  primary 
school."  Under  this  the  following  sub-topics  were  con- 
sidered :  "The  gifts  and  occupations  of  the  kindergarten." 


154     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

"Should  the  kindergarten  attempt  to  teach  reading  and 
writing?"  "Should  the  games  invented  by  Froebel  be 
modified  or  added  to?"  "What  is  the  place  of  song  in 
the  kindergarten  and  what  degree  of  the  dramatic  element 
should  accompany  it?"  These  topics  were  discussed 
by  Mrs.  Alice  H.  Putnam  of  Chicago,  Mrs.  Sarah  B. 
Cooper  of  San  Francisco,  Miss  Sarah  A.  Stewart  and 
Miss  Constance  Mackenzie  of  Philadelphia,  Miss  Mary 
C.  McCulloch  of  St.  Louis,  Professor  WilUam  N.  Hailman 
of  La  Porte,  and  others.  The  topic  selected  for  the  second 
session  was  "Kindergarten  training,"  the  many  aspects 
of  which  were  discussed  by  Mrs.  Eudora  L.  Hailman, 
Mrs.  J.  N.  Crouse  of  Chicago,  and  others.  .The  subject 
of  "Symbolism"  was  selected  for  the  last  session,  and  was 
discussed  by  Miss  Elizabeth  Harrison  of  Chicago,  Pro- 
fessor Earl  Barnes  of  Leland  Stanford  University,  Pro- 
fessor Hailman,  and  others  present.  No  description  of 
the  congresses  or  of  the  exposition  as  a  whole  can  convey 
an  idea  of  the  inspiration  that  the  occasion  gave  to  the 
kindergartners  of  the  country.  To  the  younger  kinder- 
gartners  just  entering  the  ranks  it  was  an  inspiration  to 
see  and  hear  the  leaders  of  their  cause.  To  the  older 
workers  the  enthusiasm  of  their  younger  sisters  was  the 
prophecy  of  what  might  be  accomplished  in  the  future. 
The  extent  to  which  the  kindergarten  had  invaded  the 
educational  territory  was  a  surprise  to  all  and  a  promise 
of  the  ultimate  surrender  of  the  forces  of  conservatism 
in  the  teaching  ranks.  The  kindergarten  seed  had  been 
scattered  broadcast,  and  they  knew  that  the  harvest  would 


PERIOD   OF  extension;     ORGANIZATIONS,   ETC.      1 55 

be  forthcoming.  They  had  made  a  great  effort.  The 
passing  years  have  proved  that  it  was  not  in  vain,  and  that 
the  kindergarten  entered  upon  an  enlarged  sphere  of 
influence   from   that  date. 

The  work  of  the  Chicago  Exposition  for  the  kindergar- 
ten cause  was  so  thoroughly  done  that  succeeding  ex- 
positions have  found  it  unnecessary  to  make  a  correspond- 
ing effort  in  its  behalf.  The  educational  work  done  in 
connection  with  the  Cotton  States  and  International 
Exposition  held  in  i.\tlanta  in  1895  was  of  great  value  to 
the  South,  however,  since  the  new  education  had  not 
secured  so  strong  a  foothold  in  that  section  at  that  time 
as  it  had  in  other  sections.  The  educational  committee, 
composed  largely  of  Atlanta  teachers,  cooperated  with 
the  managers  of  the  Woman's  Building  to  erect  a  Model 
School  Building  and  to  maintain  a  kindergarten  and 
a  primary  department  during  the  time  that  the  exposi- 
tion was  open.  The  kindergarten  was  conducted  by 
Miss  Mary  Hill  of  the  Louisville  Free  Kindergarten 
Association,  and  the  primary  department  by  Miss  IMinnie 
Holman  of  the  Peabody  Normal  at  Nashville,  Tcnn. 
The  exhibits  of  school  work  were  of  value,  but  the  inter- 
est centered  in  the  work  done  with  the  children.  The 
kindergarten  was  in  the  most  conspicuous  part  of  the 
Woman's  Building,  which  in  turn  was  situated  in  the 
most  central  and  conspicuous  part  of  the  grounds.  In 
consequence,  says  a  writer,  "the  crowds  in  the  kinder- 
garten were  continuous;  two  or  three  hundred  passing 
would  step  in  for  a  while  and  then  pass  on,  only  to  be 


156      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

replaced  by  a  crowd  equally  large."  It  was  unfortunate 
for  the  kindergartners  and  for  the  cause,  however,  that 
the  children  were  those  taken  from  a  charitable  institution, 
and  that  results  were  not  what  might  have  been  hoped 
for.  In  spite  of  discouraging  conditions,  however,  much 
was  accomplished,  and  Miss  Hill  had  occasion  to  explain 
the  principles  and  methods  of  the  kindergarten  to  hundreds 
of  interested  visitors. 

The  new  education  was  well  represented  at  the  Trans- 
Mississippi  Exposition  at  Omaha  in  1898,  although  the 
kindergarten  was  not  emphasized.  The  Exposition  mana- 
gers gave  into  the  hands  of  the  Omaha  women  all  interests 
of  an  educational  nature,  the  erection  of  the  children's 
building,  the  organization  of  the  school  exhibits,  and  the 
management  of  the  educational  congresses.  The  kinder- 
garten received  its  share  of  attention  in  each  of  these  lines. 
It  was  not  due  to  lack  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  Omaha 
women,  however,  that  more  effort  was  not  centered  on 
the  kindergarten,  as  they  had  tried  without  success  to 
secure  the  I.  K.  U.  meeting  for  their  city  on  that  occasion. 
They  were  successful,  however,  in  securing  the  meeting 
of  the  National  Congress  of  Mothers,  and  since  the 
emphasis  of  its  meetings  was  placed  upon  the  study  of 
childhood  and  the  importance  of  training  for  motherhood, 
it  accomplished  much  for  the  kindergarten  indirectly. 
Among  the  speakers  were  several  prominent  kindergart- 
ners. Miss  Caroline  M.  C.  Hart  of  Baltimore  and  Miss 
Amalie  Hofer,  and  Miss  Frances  Newton  of  Chicago, 
being  among  them. 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   organizations,  etc.     157 

The  Pan-American  Exposition  at  Buffalo  in  1901 
furnished  another  occasion  for  acquainting  the  general 
public  with  the  kindergarten  idea.  The  Buffalo  Kinder- 
garten Union  utilized  the  opportunity  and  held  a  Kinder- 
garten Convocation  lasting  for  three  days,  July  1-3.  It 
is  not  often  that  the  president  of  a  great  exposition  is  also 
the  president  of  a  kindergarten  association,  but  Mr.  John 
G.  Milburn,  president  of  the  exposition,  who  welcomed 
the  visiting  kindergartners  and  the  many  interested  out- 
siders at  the  first  meeting,  spoke  in  the  capacity  of  presi- 
dent of  the  Buffalo  Free  Kindergarten  Association  as  well. 
The  leading  speakers  were  Dr.  Wilham  N.  Hailman,  Miss 
Virginia  Graeff  of  Cleveland,  Miss  Rosemary  Baum  of 
Utica,  Mrs.  Mary  Boomer  Page  of  Chicago,  Mr.  Percival 
Chubb  of  New  York,  and  Col.  Francis  W.  Parker.  An 
attractive  exhibit  from  the  kindergartens  of  Buffalo  added 
to  the  interest. 

By  the  time  that  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  of 
1904  was  held,  the  kindergarten  was  no  longer  a  waif 
seeking  adoption  into  the  educational  family,  but  a  child 
accorded  full  rights  and  privileges.  The  exhibits  of  the 
Palace  of  Education  showed  kindergarten  work  in  its 
natural  relations  to  other  school  work;  the  kindergarten 
took  its  turn  with  the  cooking  schools  and  manual  training 
classes  in  exhibiting  its  work  in  actual  operation ;  and  the 
N.  E.  A.  and  other  educational  congresses  gave  it  adequate 
recognition  on  their  programs.  In  theory  the  battle  for 
the  incorporation  of  the  kindergarten  into  the  school 
system  has  been  won ;  in  practice  much  still  remains  to  be 


158      THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

accomplished.  The  great  popular  movements  above 
mentioned  have  been  noble  allies  and  they  will  continue 
to  do  service  in  behalf  of  the  kindergarten.  But  new 
problems  are  arising  that  call  for  new  solutions.  The 
discussion  of  these  problems  will  be  taken  up  in  later 
chapters. 


CHAPTER   IX 

The  Period  of  Extension;   Progress  in  Literature 

The  literature  of  the  kindergarten  has  been  one  of  the 
sources  from  which  the  new  educational  thought  has  been 
derived.  It  struck  a  higher  note  in  the  gamut  of  educa- 
tion than  had  hitherto  been  sounded,  and  the  whole 
educational  symphony  is  being  gradually  modulated  to 
the  new  key.  Its  beginnings  have  been  noted,  but  an 
appreciation  of  its  progress  and  influence  requires  a  glance 
at  the  literature  of  general  education.  At  the  time  that 
the  kindergarten  made  its  appearance  in  the  United 
States  the  school  was  a  dreary  place,  and  it  is  not  surprising 
that  the  literature  of  education,  —  what  there  was  of  it, 
—  should  have  been  lacking  in  inspiration  and  value. 
Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education  was  established 
in  1855,  and  this,  with  a  few  other  educational  journals, 
devoted  to  the  practical  problems  of  school  organization 
and  administration,  practically  occupied  the  field.  As 
early  as  i860  Mr.  Barnard  published  a  series  of  books 
called  "Papers  for  the  Teacher,"  consisting  of  articles 
reprinted  from  the  Journal,  bearing  upon  the  practical 
problems  of  the  schoolroom.  He  also  published  separately 
in  pamphlet  form,  many  of  the  articles  that  had  appeared 
in  the  Journal.     With  this  exception,  the  only  book  of 

IS9 


l6o     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

direct  value  to  teachers  published  before  the  Civil  War 
was  Page's  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching."  This 
was  published  in  1847,  ^.nd  is  of  great  value  still.  Until 
education  began  to  be  considered  as  a  process  of  develop- 
ment instead  of  a  process  of  instruction  only,  no  books 
on  elementary  education  were  written.  As  has  been 
stated  elsewhere,  this  change  of  view  was  due  to  the  grow- 
ing acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi,  and 
the  center  of  Pestalozzian  influence  was  the  Oswego 
Normal  School.  In  this  school  and  among  its  graduates, 
sympathy  with  the  joyous,  overflowing  life  of  childhood 
began  to  take  the  place  of  the  repression  that  had  hitherto 
prevailed,  and  the  child's  interest  in  the  things  of  sense 
began  to  be  recognized  as  having  an  educational  value. 
An  acquaintance  with  things  began  to  be  considered 
a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  teaching  of  words,  and 
objective  teaching  became  the  watchword  of  the  new 
thought.  The  "object  lesson"  became  the  center  of 
educational  interest,  and  a  course  in  object  lessons  was 
scheduled  in  every  progressive  school  curriculum  and 
program.  This  occasioned  a  demand  for  literature  upon 
the  subject,  and  Dr.  Sheldon's  books  on  "Object  Lessons" 
and  "Elementary  Instruction,"  written  in  response  to  the 
demand,  were  widely  read  both  in  the  United  States  and 
in  England.  Dr.  A.  E.  Winship  says  in  reference  to  Dr. 
Sheldon's  work:  "A  general  desire  to  know  about  the 
new  ideas  led  to  the  preparation  of  the  first  books  printed 
in  America  upon  the  adaptation  of  Pestalozzian  principles 
to  our  school   work.     These  books   marked   an  era   in 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   literature  i6i 

American  education.  This  was  really  the  birth  of  educa- 
tional literature  in  America."  Calkins'  "Manual  of 
Object  Teaching,"  published  later,  was  a  part  of  this  same 
movement. 

During  the  decade  between  1870  and  1880  several 
additions  were  made  to  the  literature  of  education.  Ab- 
bott's "Gentle  Measures  in  the  Management  of  the 
Young"  was  published  in  1872.  This  was  of  great 
value  to  mothers  as  well  as  teachers  and  did  much  to 
change  the  general  attitude  toward  childhood.  In  1874 
Professor  William  N.  Hailman  published  his  "History  of 
Pedagogy,"  which  gave  to  many  their  first  insight  into 
the  historic  development  of  the  new  educational  views. 
His  "System  of  Objective  Teaching"  was  published  soon 
after.  Two  other  books  of  importance  were  Wicker- 
sham's  "School  Management"  and  "Methods  of  Instruc- 
tion." Of  the  first  of  these,  Dr.  Winship  says  that  it 
"was  probably  the  best  professional  book  issued  up  to 
that  time,  and  remained  a  standard  for  a  quarter  of  a 
century."  He  adds  the  interesting  fact  that  it  is  the 
only  American  professional  book  ever  translated  into 
Japanese  and  used  by  the  government  of  Japan  as  the 
official  book  for  teachers  to  study.  Both  of  these  books 
were  used  as  text-books  in  many  of  the  normal  schools  of 
the  United  States  for  many  years. 

The  stock  of  pedagogical  literature  was  being  aug- 
mented also  from  other  sources.  Krusi's  "Life  of  Pesta- 
lozzi"  appeared  in  1875  and  Dr.  Barnard's  "American 
Pedagogy,"  "English  Pedagogy,"  and  "German  Teachers 


362      THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

and  Reformers,"  reprints  also  of  articles  that  had  ap- 
peared in  the  Journal,  were  issued  soon  after.  Johon- 
not's  "Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching,"  published 
in  1878,  was  a  book  of  great  value.  The  educational 
literature  of  the  present  still  leaves  much  to  be  desired, 
but  its  relative  abundance  compared  with  the  scarcity 
of  books  before  1880  makes  one  forget  how  recent  is  the 
new  educational  thought,  and  how  gradual  has  been  its 
development.  Probably  no  one  person  has  contributed 
more  to  the  transformation  of  education  than  Colonel 
Francis  W.  Parker,  but  his  first  work,  "Talks  on  Teach- 
ing," was  not  published  until  1883,  and  the  pen  pictures 
of  his  work  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  under  the  name  of  "Quincy 
Methods,"  was  not  given  to  the  public  until  1885.  The 
first  volume  of  the  International  Education  Series, 
Rosenkranz'  "Philosophy  of  Education,"  was  not  pub- 
lished until  1886.  In  fact  few  if  any  of  the  books  that 
for  years  constituted  a  part  of  every  pedagogical  library, 
— Rousseau's  "  Emile,"  Payne's  "  Lectures  on  Education," 
White's  "Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  Fitch's  "Lectures  on 
Teaching,"  Compayre's  "History  of  Pedagog}%"  W.  H. 
Payne's  "Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education," 
were  available  before  1885.  "The  literature  of  pedagogy 
is  still  in  its  infancy  in  the  English  language,"  said  an 
educator  of  note  in  1885.     And  so  indeed  it  seemed. 

Against  this  general  background  of  pedagogical  litera- 
ture the  increasing  literature  of  the  kindergarten  is  to  be 
placed  if  it  is  to  be  rightly  comprehended.  It  is  astonish- 
ing but  true  that  more  books  were  translated  and  written 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   literature  163 

concerning  the  kindergarten  during  the  decade  between 
1870  and  1880  than  were  translated  or  written  on  the 
whole  of  general  education  besides.  The  progress  in 
kindergarten  literature  during  the  period  following  can- 
not fail  to  interest  all  who  are  interested  in  the  progress 
of  education.  The  first  notable  contribution  of  the  new 
decade  was  Barnard's  "Kindergarten  and  Child  Culture 
Papers,"  published  in  1881,  —  a  reprint,  like  his  other 
volumes,  of  articles  that  had  appeared  in  the  Journal. 
Some  important  translations  appeared  during  the  decade, 
—  "Goldammer's  Manual,"  an  English  translation  of 
the  Mother  Plays,  by  the  Misses  Lord,  and  Froebel's 
"Education  of  Man,"  translated  first  by  Miss  Jarvis  and 
later  by  W.  N.  Hailman.  This  was  the  first  volume  of 
Froebelian  literature  to  appear  in  the  International  Series. 
"The  Hand  Book  of  Froebel's  System"  was  also  trans- 
lated, as  was  the  "Autobiography  of  Froebel,"  the  former 
by  Miss  Wheelock,  and  the  latter  by  Miss  Emelie  Michaelis 
and  Mr.  H.  Keatley  Moore  of  London.  Some  of  the 
most  important  of  Froebel's  works  were  not  translated 
until  after  1890.  A  volume  of  Froebel  Letters  was  trans- 
lated by  A.  H.  Heineman  in  1893.  In  1895  the  volume 
of  essays  known  as  "Pedagogics  of  the  Kindergarten" 
was  translated  by  Miss  Jarvis,  and  the  same  year  Miss 
Blow  made  a  new  translation  of  the  Mother  Plays.  This 
was  published  in  two  volumes,  the  first  of  which  was 
entitled  "Mottoes  and  Commentaries  of  Froebel's  Mother 
Play,"  and  the  second,  "Songs  and  Music  of  Froebel's 
Mother    Play."     The    three    volumes    appeared    in    the 


164     THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

International  Series,  as  did  a  later  volume  of  essays, 
entitled  "Education  by  Development,"  translated  by 
Josephine  Jarvis  in  1899,  Another  volume  of  letters, 
entitled  "Froebel's  Letters  on  the  Kindergarten,"  was 
translated  by  Miss  Michaelis  and  Mr.  Moore  in  1896,  and 
the  translation  and  adaptation  of  Hanschman's  "Life  of 
Froebel"  by  Fanny  Franks,  known  as  the  "Kindergarten 
System,"  in  1897.  With  the  translation  and  publication 
in  1901  of  the  "Life  of  the  Baroness  von  Buelow,"  written 
by  her  niece,  the  most  important  of  Froebel's  own  works 
and  those  of  his  intimate  successors  have  been  made 
available  to  the  English  reading  public. 

The  books  above  mentioned  vary  in  value  and  popu- 
larity, but  all  have  contributed  something  to  the  advance- 
ment of  the  new  educational  views.  Some  are  of  general 
educational  interest  and  are  therefore  to  be  found  in  every 
up-to-date  pedagogical  library.  Others  concern  them- 
selves with  the  details  of  kindergarten  procedure  and  are 
therefore  of  value  to  the  professional  kindergartner  mainly. 
The  general  deepening  of  insight  into  the  principles  of 
the  kindergarten  among  the  great  body  of  kindergartners 
has  rendered  the  specific  kindergarten  manuals  less 
necessary  than  they  were  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  move- 
ment, and  has  occasioned  an  increasing  demand  for  the 
books  that  embody  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
kindergarten  and  of  education  in  general.  The  "Mother 
Play  Book"  and  the  "Education  of  Man"  are  used  as 
text-books  in  every  kindergarten  training  school  in  the 
country  worthy  of  the  name,  and  the  "Pedagogies  of  the 


PERIOD   OF  extension;     LITERATURE  165 

Kindergarten"  and  others  are  used  as  reference  books  in 
most  of  them.  The  first  two  have  been  translated  into 
many  languages,  and  are  known  the  world  over.  Froebel's 
"Autobiography,"  the  two  volumes  of  "Letters,"  the 
"Life  of  Froebel,"  and  the  "Life  of  the  Baroness  von 
Buelow"  are  used  in  every  class  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion that  places  emphasis  upon  the  historical  development 
of  the  new  educational  movement. 

But  the  public  has  not  depended  wholly  upon  the  works 
of  Froebel  himself  for  an  acquaintance  with  the  principles 
embodied  in  the  Froebelian  philosophy.  One  of  the 
greatest  services  that  the  kindergarten  has  rendered  to 
American  education  is  the  stimulus  that  it  has  given  to 
original  work.  The  kindergarten  has  been  a  fruitful 
theme  for  the  essayist  and  author,  and  the  list  of  books 
written  within  recent  years  as  a  result  of  kindergarten 
inspiration  is  a  creditable  one.  Such  books  may  be 
divided  into  two  general  classes,  —  those  whose  aim  is 
the  interpretation  of  the  kindergarten,  and  those  whose 
purpose  is  to  discuss  the  development  of  childhood  in 
general.  These  aims  overlap  in  most  cases,  but  the 
emphasis  is  usually  upon  the  one  or  the  other.  Of  the 
thirty  or  more  books  on  the  kindergarten  written  since 
1880  not  more  than  six  appeared  during  the  decade  be- 
tween 1880  and  1890.  The  new  institution  needed  to 
be  tested  under  the  varying  conditions  of  American  life 
and  education  before  its  advocates  could  speak  with 
the  authority  they  wished,  and  those  who  were  gaining 
the  needed  experience  were  at  first  too  occupied  vidth  the 


1 66      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

experience  itself  to  enter  the  field  of  authorship.  Of  the 
six  books  mentioned,  Professor  W.  N.  Hailman's  "Law 
of  Childhood,"  published  in  1880,  was  the  first.  This 
was  a  series  of  essays  that  had  appeared  in  The  New  Edu- 
cation. The  second  was  Miss  Peabody's  "Lectures  to 
Kindergartners,"  which  was  given  to  the  public  in  1886. 
This  consisted  of  a  series  of  lectures  w^hich  for  nine  or 
ten  years  she  had  delivered  before  the  kindergarten  train- 
ing classes  in  Boston  and  other  cities. 

The  third  book,  published  the  same  year,  was  entitled 
"The  Kindergarten  and  the  School."  It  consisted  of 
articles  by  four  active  workers,  on  the  relation  of  the  kin- 
dergarten to  the  school.  The  fourth  volume  was  "  Con- 
scious Motherhood"  by  Miss  Emma  Marwedel,  published 
in  1887.  This  was  an  application  of  Froebel's  doctrine 
to  the  development  of  childhood,  based  on  such  observa- 
tions as  had  been  recorded  by  Preyer  in  his  "Mind  of  the 
Child."  As  the  means  of  arousing  an  interest  in  genetic 
psychology  among  kindergartners,  this  book  was  of  more 
than  ordinary  value.  The  next  book  published  during 
the  decade  was  Mrs.  Susan  Pollock's  "National  Kinder- 
garten Manual."  This  was  practical  in  character.  The 
last  one  was  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin's  "Story  of  Patsy." 

To  make  even  a  brief  analysis  of  all  the  books  that  have 
appeared  since  1890  would  require  more  space  than  can 
be  given  here.  The  time  of  their  appearance  is  of  interest, 
and  certain  ones  call  for  special  consideration.  The 
first  book  of  the  new  decade  was  Miss  Elizabeth  Harrison's 
"Study  of  Child  Nature,"  which  was  published  in  1890. 


PERIOD   OF  extension;     LITERATURE  167 

The  next  was  Bowen's  "  Froebcl  and  Education  by  Self- 
activity,"  an  English  book  pubhshed  in  the  Great  Edu- 
cator Series  in  1892.  A  volume  of  essays  entitled  ''The 
Kindergarten,"  by  Mrs.  Wiggin  and  other  prominent 
kindergartners,  was  published  the  same  year,  as  was  also 
the  volume  of  essays  called  "Children's  Rights,"  by  Mrs. 
Wiggin  and  her  sister,  Nora  A.  Smith.  Miss  Jeannette 
R.  Gregory's  "Practical  Suggestions  to  Kindergartners, 
Primary  Teachers  and  Mothers"  appeared  in  1893,  and 
Mrs.  Mary  C.  Foster's  "The  Kindergarten  of  the  Church" 
in  1894.  The  year  1895  was  made  memorable  by  the 
appearance  of  several  books.  One  of  these  was  Susan 
E.  Blow's  "Symbolic  Education."  Another  was  "Froe- 
bel's  Mother  Play  Songs,  A  Commentary,"  by  Denton  J. 
Snider.  A  third  was  Airs.  Wiggin  and  Miss  Smith's 
"Kindergarten  Gifts,"  the  first  of  the  three  volumes 
collectively  termed  "The  Republic  of  Childhood."  The 
second  volume,  "Kindergarten  Occupations,"  and  the 
third,  "Kindergarten  Principles  and  Practice,"  followed 
the  next  year.  In  1896  Miss  Katharine  Beebe's  "Home 
Occupations  for  Little  Children"  was  published,  and  also 
Miss  Frederica  Beard's  "Kindergarten  Sunday  School." 
In  1897  another  book  on  the  application  of  kindergarten 
principles  to  Sunday  school  work  appeared,  Miss  Mabel 
Wilson's  "Love,  Light,  and  Life  for  God's  Little  Children." 
Mrs.  Andrea  Hofer  Proudfoot  also  published  "A  Mother's 
Ideals,"  and  Professor  J.  L.  Hughes'  "Froebel's  Educa- 
tional Laws  for  All  Teachers."  The  volume  called  "  Out- 
lines for  Kindergarten  and  Primary  Classes,"  by  Misses 


1 68      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

Maud  Cannell  and  Margaret  E.  Wise,  was  also  published 
at  about  this  time.  Several  additional  books  appeared 
in  1899.  One  of  these  was  Miss  Blow's  "Letters  to  a 
Mother,"  another  was  Miss  Emelic  Poulsson's  "Love  and 
Law  in  Child  Training,"  another  w^as  Miss  Smith's 
"Kindergarten  in  a  Nutshell,"  and  still  another  was  Fred- 
erick Burk's  "Kindergarten  Problem."  The  follow- 
ing year  Mr.  Snider's  "Psychology  of  Froebel's  Play 
Gifts  "  and  Miss  Harrison's  "Two  Children  of  the  Foot- 
hills "  were  published,  and  also  "The  Message  of  Froebel  " 
and  "Children  of  the  Future,"  by  Miss  Smith.  Mr. 
Snider  has  since  published  the  "Life  of  Froebel,"  and 
Miss  Harrison  "The  Building  Gifts"  and  "Some  Silent 
Teachers." 

Of  the  long  list  of  books  mentioned,  all  of  which  have 
served  to  further  the  kindergarten  cause  in  some  degree, 
a  few  call  for  special  mention  as  indicating  a  special  line 
of  influence  or  illustrating  a  particular  tendency.  One 
of  these  is  Miss  Harrison's  "Study  of  Child  Nature," 
which  has  been  translated  into  several  languages,  and  is 
probably  as  widely  known  as  any  book  on  kindergarten 
subjects.  This  book  was  "the  outcome  of  many  years 
of  experience  in  teaching  young  mothers  to  train  their 
children  in  the  home  according  to  kindergarten  principles," 
and  although  critics  have  declared  it  overdrawn,  lacking 
in  psychological  value,  and  devoid  of  literary  style,  it 
meets  the  practical  needs  of  the  average  mother  better 
than  many  more  pretentious  books  that  have  been  written 
since   its  publication.     The  topics  treated   are   such  as 


PERIOD   OF   extension;     LITERATURE  l6g 

appeal  to  mothers,  and  they  are  treated  in  a  simple,  practi- 
cal manner.  The  chief  value  of  the  book,  however,  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  points  out  the  advantage  of  building  up 
the  positive  side  of  a  child's  nature.  It  has  probably 
done  as  much  as  any  one  book  on  the  list  to  acquaint 
mothers  with  kindergarten  principles,  and  is  an  excellent 
one  to  awaken  interest  in  the  study  of  childhood. 

Differing  widely  in  content  and  literary  merit,  but 
similar  in  their  appeal  to  the  public  outside  of  the  teach- 
ing profession,  are  the  books  by  Mrs.  Kate  Douglas 
Wiggin  and  Miss  Nora  A.  Smith.  These,  too,  were  the 
outgrowth  of  experience,  —  "of  talks  and  conferences  on 
Froebel's  educational  principles  with  successive  groups 
of  earnest  young  women,  here,  there,  and  everywhere, 
for  fifteen  years."  The  purpose  of  the  books  was  to 
acquaint  the  public  with  the  kindergarten,  its  instrumen- 
talities, —  the  gifts,  games,  songs,  occupations,  and  stories, 
—  and  the  method  and  purpose  of  their  use.  They  were 
"purposely  divested  of  technicalities  and  detail,  in  the 
hope  that  they  would  thus  reach  not  only  kindergarten 
students,  but  the  many  mothers  and  teachers  who  really 
long  to  know  what  Froebel's  system  of  education  is,  and 
what  it  aims  to  do."  These  hopes  have  been  more  than 
realized.  The  public  already  familiar  with  "The  Story 
of  Patsy,"  and  articles  from  the  pen  of  its  author,  wel- 
comed anything  that  the  gifted  sisters  might  produce,  and 
the  charming  style  in  which  the  books  are  written  made 
them  welcome  additions  to  any  library.  They  have  prob- 
ably done  more  to  popularize  the  kindergarten  than  have 


170     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

any  other  books  written.  They  are  of  a  kind  that  cannot 
grow  old,  and  will  continue  their  beneficent  service  to  the 
cause  of  childhood  for  all  time. 

Quite  different  in  its  aim  and  scope,  but  far-reaching 
in  its  results,  is  the  modest  little  book,  "The  Kindergarten 
Sunday-School,"  by  Miss  Beard.  That  the  kindergarten 
had  a  message  for  the  religious  teachers  of  childhood  had 
been  recognized  from  the  beginning,  and  the  expression 
of  Froebel's  views  concerning  the  child's  spiritual  nature, 
at  Chautauqua  and  other  gatherings,  had  led,  as  has  been 
stated,  to  important  changes  in  Sunday  school  method. 
But  few  of  the  many  admirable  things  that  had  been  said 
had  got  into  book  form,  however,  and  Aliss  Beard's  book 
was  a  real  contribution  to  Sunday  school  literature.  It 
contains  a  discussion  of  kindergarten  principles  in  their 
application  to  Sunday  school  work,  and  outlines  a  series 
of  lessons  for  a  Sunday  school  kindergarten  that  deserves 
commendation  because  it  is  based  on  the  children's  power 
of  comprehension,  not  upon  a  church  calendar,  nor  upon 
a  plan  of  lessons  made  out  for  adults.  While  Miss  Beard 
might  profitably  have  made  her  book  larger,  it  has  been 
of  great  value,  and  has  had  a  great  influence  in  establish- 
ing the  principle,  now  generally  recognized,  that  a  peda- 
gogical foundation  is  as  essential  in  religious  instruction 
as  in  any  other. 

While  certain  books  were  thus  meeting  the  needs  of 
certain  classes  of  people,  a  book  appeared  that  most  ad- 
mirably met  the  needs  of  school  men,  —  whether  or  not 
they  recognized  that  fact,  —  to  many  of  whom  the  kinder- 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   literature  171 

garten  still  seems  puerile,  and  Froebel  without  a  message 
to  any  save  kindergartners.  That  book  is  Professor 
Hughes's  "Froebel's  Educational  Laws  for  all  Teachers." 
Since  Froebel  has  been  exploited  mainly  in  connection 
with  the  kindergarten,  the  educational  public  is  inclined 
to  forget  that  he  was  the  principal  of  a  boys'  school  for 
nearly  twenty  years  before  the  idea  of  the  kindergarten 
even  occurred  to  him,  and  that  his  educational  views  were 
worked  out  with  boys  of  varying  ages  before  they  were 
applied  to  the  education  of  little  children  at  all.  Mr. 
Hughes  says :  " '  The  Education  of  Man  '  w^as  written  in 
1826,  fourteen  years  before  he  opened  his  first  kinder- 
garten, but  if  he  had  died  in  1827  his  contribution  to 
educational  thought  would  have  given  him  a  foremost 
place  among  educational  reformers."  Mr.  Hughes  em- 
phasized the  universal  character  of  Froebel's  principles, 
and  the  effect  of  their  application  to  grade  work,  in  the 
most  admirable  manner.  The  book  is  written  from  the 
standpoint  of  a  school  man,  for  other  school  men,  and  it 
has  done  much  to  bring  about  a  more  general  recognition 
of  Froebel's  principles. 

Among  the  books  claiming  special  attention  is  Miss 
Blow's  "Symbolic  Education,"  in  the  estimation  of  many 
the  most  noteworthy  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the 
kindergarten  since  Froebel.  To  it  one  must  go  for  the 
philosophic  interpretation  of  kindergarten  principles  and 
practice.  It  is  not  a  book  to  appeal  to  the  superficial, 
however,  and  its  full  significance  will  hardly  dawn  upon 
even  the  most  thoughtful,  without  careful  study.      It  is 


172      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

a  book  for  the  educational  expert,  and  challenges  the 
attention  of  the  ablest  thinkers.  "It  is  one  of  the  mile- 
stones in  educational  literature,"  says  Miss  Amalie  Hofer 
in  The  Kindergarten  Magazine.  Miss  Blow's  later  book, 
"Letters  to  a  Mother,"  is  along  the  same  line,  as  are  also 
the  commentaries  on  Froebel  by  Denton  J.  Snider.  They 
constitute  an  interpretation  of  Froebel,  —  an  interpreta- 
tion against  which  there  is  a  growing  reaction.  For 
the  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth 
centuries,  which  shaped  to  a  large  extent  the  theory  and 
the  practice  of  the  kindergarten,  has  been  replaced  by  a  new 
interpretation  of  man  and  the  universe,  —  the  inter- 
pretation to  which  modern  psychology  gives  the  cue. 
The  books  in  question  present  the  theory  of  the  kinder- 
garten from  the  philosophical  viewpoint  most  admirably, 
but  that  presentation  is  not  one  with  which  current  edu- 
cational thought  is  in  sympathy. 

As  indicating  the  most  extreme  protest  against  the 
philosophical  interpretation  of  the  kindergarten,  the 
unassuming  little  book  by  Frederick  Burk,  entitled 
"The  Kindergarten  Problem,"  is  worthy  of  notice.  While 
few  kindergartners  at  the  present  time  would  be  willing 
to  cast  kindergarten  tradition  aside  to  the  extent  that 
Mr.  Burk  has  done,  yet  the  book  is  stimulating  and 
worthy  of  study,  as  an  indication  of  the  tendency  that  has 
been  slowly  coming  to  consciousness  among  the  kinder- 
gartners of  the  country. 

Resulting  in  part  from  the  kindergarten  movement  is 
a  group  of  books  written  mainly  by  mothers  familiar  with 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   literature  173 

the  new  spirit  in  education  and  dealing  principally  with 
the  problems  of  child  training  in  the  home.  They  are  to 
be  found  in  any  list  of  books  on  child  study,  but  differ 
from  many  of  those  classed  under  that  head,  since  their 
aim  is  not  merely  the  observation  of  facts  in  a  child's 
development,  but  the  application  of  the  discovered  prin- 
ciples of  child  training  to  the  individual  child  in  the  in- 
dividual home.  The  familiarity  that  most  of  these  show 
with  the  child  study  movement  as  well  as  with  other 
current  educational  movements  is  significant  in  showing 
the  kind  of  motherhood  the  age  is  producing.  Mr.  John 
Brisben  Walker  considers  that  one  of  the  six  distinct  lines 
in  which  women  have  progressed  since  the  Chicago  Expo- 
sition is  "the  acceptance  of  motherhood  as  a  profession." 
The  books  in  question  are  proof  that  motherhood  is  being 
so  considered.  The  books  of  this  character  were  later 
in  appearing  than  those  on  the  kindergarten  as  such,  but 
by  their  insight  into  its  purposes  and  the  tacit  approval 
of  its  principles  they  have  been  of  great  value  in  further- 
ing the  kindergarten  movement. 

Among  them  are  the  following :  "  Children,  their  Models 
and  Critics,"  by  Mrs.  Aldrich,  published  in  1892;  "Beck- 
onings  from  Little  Hands,"  by  Patterson  Du  Bois,  1894; 
"Child  Culture  in  the  Home,"  by  Mrs.  Martha  Mosher, 
and  "The  Study  of  a  Child"  by  Mrs.  Louise  Hogan, 
both  of  which  appeared  in  1898;  "Nursery  Ethics"  and 
"From  the  Child's  Standpoint,"  by  Mrs.  Florence  Hull 
Winterburn,  published  in  1899;  "Concerning  Children," 
by  Mrs.  Charlotte  Perkins  Oilman,  and  "Childhood"  by 


174     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

Mrs.  Theodore  W.  Birney,  published  in  1900;  Grinnell's 
"How  John  and  I  Brought  up  the  Child  "  and  Chenery's 
"As  the  Twig  is  Bent "  also  belong  to  this  class,  as  do  several 
of  the  books  by  kindergartners  already  named,  —  par- 
ticularly Miss  Blow's  "Letters  to  a  Mother,"  Miss  Smith's 
"Children  of  the  Future,"  Mrs.  Proudfoot's  "A  Mother's 
Ideals,"  and  Miss  Harrison's  "A  Study  of  Child  Nature." 
Since  these  were  not  inspired  by  the  kindergarten  move- 
ment, and  cannot  be  considered  its  product,  no  mention 
is  made  of  a  long  list  of  books  on  child  study  and  genetic 
psychology  as  such,  whose  purpose  is  scientific  observa- 
tion. Most  of  these,  however,  have  reenforced  the  funda- 
mental conclusions  concerning  childhood  which  underlie 
kindergarten  procedure,  and  have  therefore  served  an 
excellent  purpose  in  advancing  the  kindergarten  cause. 
The  increasing  influence  of  the  kindergarten  was  not 
due  wholly  to  the  increasing  literature  of  the  kind  men- 
tioned. The  appreciation  of  the  kindergarten  for  school 
purposes  came  rather  through  practical  than  through 
theoretical  lines.  The  things  which  the  kindergarten  had 
emphasized  at  first,  —  the  gifts  and  occupations,  —  had 
appealed  to  the  primary  teacher  mainly  as  means  of  busy 
work.  But  when  the  story  began  to  claim  a  larger  place, 
when  gardening  and  nature  excursions  became  a  part  of 
the  kindergarten  program,  and  when  the  child's  song  be- 
gan to  receive  increasing  attention,  she  began  to  wake  up. 
The  kindergarten  song  book  contained  songs  of  a  quality 
not  to  be  found  in  the  primary  school  repertoire.  The 
stories  designed   for   kindergarten   use   appealed   to   the 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   literature  175 

children's  interest  as  her  own,  if  she  had  any,  did  not. 
Why  should  the  kindergarten  song  or  story  book  be  con- 
fined to  kindergarten  use  alone?  Until  the  kindergarten 
came,  the  rote  song  was  almost  unknown  in  school  work. 
The  story,  too,  was  barely  recognized  as  an  educational 
instrument.  There  may  have  been  a  carefully  graded 
course  in  music,  but  the  children  were  drilled  in  the 
elements  of  musical  notation,  and  seldom  sang  the  songs 
that  they  really  loved.  There  were  courses  in  reading  and 
language,  but  little  or  no  telling  of  the  stories  dear  to  the 
heart  of  every  child.  Children  were  taught  to  read,  write, 
and  spell,  but  were  given  no  food  for  the  imagination. 

The  need  of  new  and  better  songs,  and  of  more  and 
better  stories  for  kindergarten  use,  had  made  itself  felt  in 
the  early  years  of  the  movement.  When  that  need  was 
supplied  for  the  kindergarten,  it  was  supplied  in  large 
measure  for  the  primary  school  as  well.  Perhaps  none 
of  the  kindergarten  instrumentalities  has  received  a  greater 
measure  of  criticism  than  the  songs  originally  devised  for 
kindergarten  use.  Without  denying  the  value  of  song  in 
connection  with  the  gift  plays,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
conditions  for  true  musical  feeling  and  real  musical  ex- 
pression are  lacking  in  most  of  these.  The  composition 
of  songs  truly  musical  and  childlike  in  thought,  word,  and 
melody  was  one  of  the  tasks  to  be  accomplished  if  the 
kindergarten  was  to  further  the  child's  musical  develop- 
ment to  the  degree  that  it  should.  That  this  was  recognized 
is  shown  by  the  large  number  of  kindergarten  song  books 
that  have  been  published  since  1880.    The  first  of  these  in 


176      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

order  of  time  was  Clara  Beeson  Hubbard's  "Merry  Songs 
and  Games,"  published  in  1881.  Next  came  Mrs.  Wig- 
gin's  "Kindergarten  Chimes,"  published  in  1885.  Miss 
Eleanor  Smith's  "Songs  for  Little  Children"  and  Mrs. 
Mailman's  "Songs,  Games,  and  Rhymes"  for  kindergarten 
and  primary  school  appeared  in  1887.  These  seemed  to 
meet  the  demand  for  a  few  years,  and  then  came  "Stories 
in  Song,"  by  Misses  Emerson  and  Brown,  in  1890.  "  Songs 
and  Games  for  Little  Ones,"  by  Misses  Jenks  and  Walker, 
in  1892,  and  "Song  Stories  for  the  Kindergarten,"  by 
Misses  Patty  and  Mildred  Hill,  in  1893.  From  1896  on 
several  others  appeared.  Among  these  are:  "Song 
Echoes,"  by  the  Misses  Jenks  and  Rust;  "Small  Songs 
for  Small  Singers,"  by  Professor  Neidlinger;  "Songs  for 
the  Child  World,"  by  Mrs.  Jessie  L.  Gaynor,  and  "  Holiday 
Songs,"  compiled  by  Miss  Emelie  Poulsson.  Miss  Clara 
L.  Anderson's  "Instrumental  Characteristic  Rhythms" 
and  Miss  Mari  Ruef  Hofer's  "  Music  for  the  Child  World  " 
have  met  an  additional  musical  need  of  the  kindergarten, 
—  that  for  appropriate  marches  and  other  forms  of  in- 
strumental music.  They  have  furnished  a  stimulus  to 
musical  interpretation  on  the  part  of  children,  and  have 
given  the  kindergartner's  musical  repertoire  a  richness  that 
it  did  not  have  in  the  earlier  years.  By  the  publication  of 
her  two  books  on  traditional  games,  the  one  entitled 
"Singing  Games,"  published  in  1896,  and  the  other, 
"Popular  Folk  Games,"  published  in  1907,  Miss  Hofer 
has  rendered  the  kindergarten  an  additional  service. 
The  customary  kindergarten  games  had   been   criticised 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   literature  177 

as  being  too  largely  symbolical  and  lacking  in  the  ele- 
ments that  constitute  a  good  game.  The  application 
of  the  kindergarten  idea  to  school  and  playground  showed 
the  need  of  games  of  a  different  kind,  and  the  books  in 
question  are  a  response  to  that  need.  Although  many 
of  the  games  are  intended  for  children  beyond  the  kinder- 
garten age,  the  spirit  of  the  books  has  brought  about  a  new 
attitude  toward  the  games  of  the  kindergarten  proper,  — 
an  attitude  that  promises  well  for  the  future. 

Considering  the  recognition  given  to  the  child's  love 
of  rhyme  and  story,  it  is  somewhat  surprising  that  the 
kindergarten  story  book  should  have  been  nearly  a  decade 
later  than  the  song  book  in  making  its  appearance.  Miss 
Poulsson  had  published  her  "Finger  Rhymes"  in  1889, 
but  no  story  books  appeared  until  the  following  year. 
During  the  year  no  less  than  four  appeared,  —  Miss 
Sara  E.  Wiltse's  "Kindergarten  Stories  and  Morning 
Talks";  Mrs.  Van  Kirk's  "Stories  for  the  Kindergarten 
and  Home";  "The  Story  Hour"  by  Mrs.  Wiggin  and 
Miss  Smith;  and  "Kindergarten  Gems"  by  Misses 
Ketchum  and  Jorgenson.  Others  soon  followed — "  Child's 
Christ  Tales"  and  Miss  Wihse's  "Stories  for  Kinder- 
garten and  Primary  School"  in  1892,  the  "Boston  Collec- 
tion of  Kindergarten  Stories,"  Miss  Poulsson's  collection 
entitled,  "In  the  Child's  World,"  and  Miss  Howliston's 
"Cat  Tails  and  Other  Tales"  in  1893.  The  last-named 
book  was  not  distinctively  a  kindergarten  collection,  though 
it  belongs  to  the  kindergarten  story  books  in  spirit.  Miss 
Harrison's  "In   Story  Land"  appeared  in  1895,  and  since 


178      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

that  date  a  number  of  others  have  been  published.  Among 
these  are  Mrs.  Clara  Dillingham  Pierson's  collections  of 
animal  stories,  —  "Among  the  Meadow  People,"  "Among 
the  Farmyard  People,"  etc..  Miss  Madge  Bigham's "  Stories 
of  Mother  Goose  Village,"  and  Miss  Maud  Lindsay's 
"Mother  Stories."  The  number  of  good  collections  of 
stories  for  use  in  the  primary  grades  has  become  too  large 
to  mention. 

The  publication  of  the  above-named  story  books, 
particularly  the  earlier  ones,  had  a  special  value  at  the  time 
of  their  appearance,  in  the  early  nineties.  The  story  has 
come  to  hold  an  important  place  as  an  educational  instru- 
ment in  the  primary  grades,  but  as  before  stated,  its 
use  was  but  beginning  at  the  time  in  question.  The 
kindergarten  story  has  been  peculiarly  the  vehicle  of  the 
kindergarten  thought,  and  has  come  to  have  definite  and 
easily  recognized  earmarks  of  its  own.  The  fact  that  there 
were  practically  no  other  collections  of  stories  in  the  educa- 
tional market  at  the  time  gave  the  kindergarten  story  books 
a  special  value,  and  obtained  for  them  a  large  use  among 
primary  teachers.  The  service  that  the  kindergarten 
song  book  rendered  in  acquainting  primary  teachers  with 
the  kindergarten  principles  has  been  mentioned,  but  the 
service  that  the  collections  of  kindergarten  stories  ren- 
dered was  no  less  marked. 

No  record  of  kindergarten  literature  during  the  period 
under  consideration  would  be  complete  that  did  not 
include  a  mention  of  the  kindergarten  periodicals,  —  The 
Kindergarten  Magazine,  The  Kindergarten  Review,  and  The 


PERIOD   OF   extension;     LITERATURE  179 

Child  Garden.  The  story  of  The  Kindergarten  Messenger, 
and  of  The  New  Education  has  been  told  in  an  earlier 
chapter.  When  the  latter  became  merged  in  The  Public 
School  of  Boston  in  1883,  the  kindergarten  movement  was 
left  without  representation  in  the  field  of  educational 
journalism,  and  remained  so  until  1888  when  The  Kinder- 
garten Magazine  was  founded  by  Mrs.  Alice  B.  and  Miss 
Cora  L.  Stockham  of  Chicago.  The  new  magazine  was 
carried  on  under  their  management  until  August,  1892, 
when  it  was  purchased  by  Miss  Amalie  Hofer  and  Miss 
Andrea  Hofer,  now  Mrs.  Proudfoot.  The  following  year 
it  became  the  organ  of  the  Kindergarten  Literature  Com- 
pany, a  stock  company  that  had  been  organized  by  a 
number  of  the  leading  kindergartners  of  the  country  for 
the  promotion  of  the  kindergarten  cause.  Miss  Amalie 
Hofer  retained  the  editorship  of  The  Kindergarten  Maga- 
zine and  Miss  Andrea  Hofer  assumed  the  responsibility 
of  The  Child  Garden,  a  new  magazine  of  story  song  and 
play,  established  in  1892  and  published  by  the  same  com- 
pany. This  magazine  did  excellent  service  in  furnishing 
stories  and  suggestions  during  the  ten  or  more  years  of 
existence,  but  it  was  finally  discontinued.  The  Kinder- 
garten Magazine  continued  under  the  able  leadership  of 
Miss  Amalie  Hofer  until  1903,  when  it  was  transferred  to 
Miss  Bertha  Johnston  and  Miss  Minerva  Jourdan.  In 
1906  it  became  the  property  of  Dr.  E.  Lyell  Earle  of  New 
York  City.  It  is  now  The  Kindergarten  and  Primary 
Magazine. 

The  Kindergarten  Review,  which  for  the  past  nine  years 


l8o      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

has  shared  the  field  of  kindergarten  journaUsm  with  The 
Kindergarten  Magazine,  began  its  existence  as  The  Kinder- 
garten News  in  Buffalo  in  1890.  It  was  edited  by  Louis 
H.  Allen  and  published  as  the  organ  of  the  Buffalo  Free 
Kindergarten  Association.  It  ev^entually  became  the 
property  of  the  Milton  Bradley  Company  of  Springfield, 
Mass.,  and  was  ably  edited  by  Henry  W.  Blake.  When  the 
Misses  Emelie  and  Laura  Poulsson  succeeded  to  the 
editorship  upon  Mr.  Blake's  death  in  1897,  the  publica- 
tion was  enlarged  and  its  name  changed  to  The  Kinder- 
garten Review.  The  Misses  Poulsson  continued  the 
editorship  until  1904,  when  it  was  assumed  by  Miss  May 
Murray,  who  still  conducts  it. 

It  would  be  well-nigh  impossible  to  estimate  the  value  of 
the  service  that  these  publications  have  rendered  the  kin- 
dergarten and  the  cause  of  American  education  in  general. 
The  Kindergarten  Magazine  appeared  when  the  movement 
was  still  largely  unorganized,  and  public  opinion  on  the 
subject  was  still  in  the  process  of  formation. 

During  the  important  period  from  1890  to  1900,  when 
the  movement  was  spreading  out  and  assuming  definite 
character,  the  editor  traveled  at  her  own  expense,  orga- 
nizing kindergartens,  associations,  and  training  schools, 
following  up  every  symptom  of  interest  that  manifested 
itself.  A  similar  service  was  rendered  by  Mrs.  Lucretia 
Willard  Treat.  By  reports  of  the  work  in  the  different 
kindergarten  centers,  by  accounts  of  meetings  of  interest 
to  kindergartners,  and  by  articles  along  kindergarten  and 
allied  lines,  The  Kindergarten  Magazine  gave  unity  to  the 


PERIOD  OF  extension;   literature  i8i 

movement  and  served  as  a  watch  tower  from  which  the 
field  of  kindergarten  progress  could  be  scanned.  The 
splendid  enthusiasm  shown  by  the  kindergartners  of  the 
country  at  the  time  of  the  Columbian  Exposition  was 
augmented  by  and  reflected  in  The  Kindergarten  Maga- 
zine, and  the  success  which  the  kindergarten  scored  on  that 
occasion  was  due  in  no  small  degree  to  its  efforts.  From 
1888  to  1 90 1  not  less  than  two  thousand  articles  on  the 
kindergarten  and  allied  phases  of  elementary  education, 
written  by  the  ablest  educators  of  the  country,  had  ap- 
peared in  its  pages.  By  its  practical  suggestions  no  less 
than  by  its  reports  from  the  kindergarten  field,  it  has 
translated  the  kindergarten  ideal  into  actual  kindergarten 
procedure,  not  only  to  young  kindergartners  but  to  mothers 
and  educators  all  over  the  land.  It  has  had  a  positive 
tone,  moreover,  and  has  spoken  in  no  uncertain  voice  on 
questions  of  educational  policy.  It  has  reflected  the  social 
movement  and  has  interpreted  educational  progress  anew, 
in  terms  of  the  great  West.  It  has  furthered  the  kinder- 
garten cause  in  a  material  way,  —  the  Kindergarten 
Literature  Company  having,  during  a  particular  period  of 
four  years,  earned  and  spent  $10,000  in  sending  out  liter- 
ature and  establishing  kindergartens. 

The  Kindergarten  Review  came  into  the  field  later,  when 
much  of  the  pioneer  work  had  been  done,  but  it  has  ren- 
dered a  like  service  during  the  years  of  its  existence.  The 
bound  volumes  of  these  publications  are  indispensable 
to  any  one  wishing  to  gain  an  insight  into  the  origin  and 
growth  of  the  kindergarten  movement  in  the  United  States. 


1 82      THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

The  literature  of  the  kindergarten,  both  periodical  and  per- 
manent, has  won  a  place  for  itself  in  American  life  and 
thought.  The  library  of  the  teacher  is  incomplete  without 
an  infusion  of  Froebelian  doctrine;  the  church  worker 
unfamiliar  with  it  is  out  of  touch  with  current  problems; 
the  home  that  has  not  felt  its  influence  lacks  some  of  the 
qualities  the  ideal  home  possesses.  Horace  Scudder 
says  that  the  literature  of  the  world  has  been  greatly  en- 
riched since  poverty  and  childhood  have  been  annexed 
to  its  domain.  The  educational  literature  of  America  has 
been  greatly  enriched  by  the  contribution  of  the  kinder- 
garten; the  kindergarten,  the  kindergarten  child,  and  the 
kindergartner  herself  have  gained  entrance  to  the  field  of 
general  literature,  there  to  do  service  in  the  cause  of  human 
advancement. 


CHAPTER    X 

The  Kindergarten  in  the  Public  School  System 

That  the  kindergarten  had  been  well  recommended 
by  means  of  the  agencies  described  in  preceding  chapters 
cannot  be  questioned,  and  its  speedy  adoption  by  the  school 
was  anticipated  by  the  oversanguine.  During  the  first 
decade  of  the  period  under  consideration  such  adoption 
was  far  from  being  as  rapid  as  some  had  hoped,  however, 
although  this  was  not  wholly  an  unmixed  evil.  The  rea- 
sons for  such  tardiness  were  not  far  to  seek.  The  kinder- 
garten associations  were  only  beginning  their  work  and 
required  time  to  make  their  influence  felt.  The  other 
agencies  that  have  aided  in  building  up  sentiment  favorable 
to  the  kindergarten  either  did  not  come  into  existence  until 
the  decade  between  1880  and  1890  or  were  not  strong 
enough  to  exert  the  influence  which  they  exercised  later. 
The  church  needed  a  deeper  insight  into  the  social  signifi- 
cance of  Christianity  before  it  could  advocate  the  kinder- 
garten with  vigor.  The  Woman's  Christian  Temper- 
ance Union,  organized  in  1874,  did  not  undertake  work 
bearing  upon  the  kindergarten  until  nearly  the  middle  of 
the  next  decade.  Women's  clubs,  the  first  of  which  was 
organized  in  1878,  did  not  undertake  the  study  of  education 
until  many  years  later.     The  first  social  settlement  in  the 

183 


184     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

United  States  was  not  opened  until  1887,  ^-nd  the  study 
of  education  in  universities  and  colleges  had  hardly  more 
than  begun.  The  "new  psychology"  did  not  make  itself 
felt  until  the  latter  part  of  the  decade  under  consideration, 
and  the  new  conception  of  education  did  not  become 
sufficiently  general  to  be  dynamic  until  the  decade  following. 
While  a  sufficient  number  of  cities  became  converted  to 
kindergarten  adoption  during  this  decade  to  prove  that  the 
kindergarten  was  making  itself  felt,  it  was  not  until  the  last 
decade  of  the  century  that  public  school  kindergartens 
became  common.  If  there  is  any  appropriateness  in 
calling  the  decade  from  1880  to  1890  the  Association 
Decade  in  kindergarten  history,  the  decade  from  i8go  to 
1900  may  with  equal  appropriateness  be  called  the  Pubhc 
School  Decade  in  the  kindergarten  movement.  Kinder- 
garten associations  had  been  formed  before  1880,  it  is 
true,  and  their  organization  did  not  cease  with  the 
close  of  the  decade.  So,  too,  public  school  kindergar- 
tens had  come  into  existence  before  1890,  and  their 
number  is  rapidly  increasing,  although  that  decade 
has  passed.  Each  became  general,  however,  during  the 
decade  named.  The  adoption  of  the  kindergarten  before 
1890  was  infrequent  enough  to  occasion  comment  when  it 
occurred.  The  non-adoption  of  that  institution  is  likely 
to  occasion  comment  at  the  present  timej 

.Apart  from  these  general  considerations,  the  main 
reasons  for  the  slow  march  of  kindergarten  progress 
were  two.  One  was  the  expense  of  maintaining  kinder- 
gartens, which  was  supposed  to  be  much  greater  than 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL   SYSTEM  185 

that  of  maintaining  primary  schools.  This  is  due  in 
part  to  the  cost  of  kindergarten  material,  but  in  greater 
measure  to  the  larger  number  of  teachers  supposed  to  be 
required  for  a  given  number  of  children.  "The  surprises 
of  experiences,"  to  use  Miss  Blow's  apt  phrase,  have  cor- 
rected this  impression.  Her  own  words  on  this  point  are 
of  interest.  "In  the  early  days  of  the  kindergarten  move- 
ment we  were  told  over  and  over  again  that  the  Froebelian 
ideal  could  not  be  carried  out  if  th^e  were  more  than  ten 
or  fifteen  children  in  a  kindergarten.  A  kindergarten  of 
fifty  was  condemned  by  the  intolerant  as  a  surrender  to 
the  hostile  powers,  and  was  excused  by  the  tolerant  as 
perhaps  an  unavoidable  bowing  in  the  house  of  Rimmon. 
To-day  I  do  not  hesitate  in  saying  that  as  far  as  my  observ^a- 
tion  goes,  the  average  educational  results  reached  in  the 
larger  kindergartens  far  surpass  the  average  results  reached 
in  a  kindergarten  attended  by  ten  or  fifteen  children." 
The  bugbear  of  expense  continued  to  frighten  school  boards 
for  many  years,  however,  and  the  objection  continues 
to  be  raised  even  now.  In  1886  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  said  :  "The  work  of  making  the  kindergarten  a 
part  of  the  school  system  is  only  a  question  of  time.  The 
most  eminent  educators  of  the  day  recognize  and  indorse 
its  principles  and  methods,  but  the  expense  involved 
prevents  its  becoming  at  once  the  lowest  grade  of  the 
public  school  system."  Superintendent  Seaver  of  Boston 
said  at  about  the  same  time,  "The  next  step  forward  is  to 
recognize  and  establish  the  kindergarten  as  a  part  of  the 
system  of  public  instruction." 


1 86     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

In  spite  of  the  slowness  of  its  adoption  by  the  school, 
however,  the  kindergarten  was  making  itself  felt,  even  in 
those  communities  that  never  adopted  it  as  such.  Kinder- 
garten song  books  found  their  way  to  primary  teachers' 
desks;  plants  and  pictures  appeared  in  schoolroom  win- 
dows and  on  schoolroom  walls ;  and  the  presence  of  scis- 
sors, folding  papers,  sewing  cards,  and  modeling  clay  was 
pointed  to  as  evidence  that  "the  kindergarten  was  being 
introduced."  School  boards  and  superintendents  were 
delighted  to  have  the  primary  teachers  assume  the  kinder- 
garten manner,  and  learn  something  of  "kindergarten 
methods."  "Little  progress  has  been  made  in  the  establish- 
ment of  kindergartens  at  public  expense,"  said  Dr.  Harris 
towards  the  end  of  the  decade,  "nevertheless  the  system 
has  had  a  marked  effect  in  improving  the  methods  in  the 
primary  grades."  But  while  many  cities  thus  dabbled  in 
the  edges  of  the  kindergarten  pool  or  stood  hesitating  upon 
its  brink,  but  few  had  the  courage  to  take  the  real  plunge. 
To  many  the  adoption  of  "kindergarten  methods"  in  the 
school  rather  than  the  adoption  of  the  kindergarten  itself 
seemed  quite  sufficient.  The  interest  awakened  by  the 
kindergarten  as  a  part  of  the  school  system,  which  had 
made  St.  Louis  the  center  of  educational  interest  during 
the  seventies,  seemed  transferred  to  an  interest  in  the 
adoption  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  kindergarten 
in  the  grades.  During  the  eighties,  therefore,  educational 
interest  was  transferred  from  St.  Louis  to  La  Porte,  Ind., 
and  the  Cook  County  Normal  School  in  Chicago,  where 
Professor  W.  N.  Hailman  and  Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL  SYSTEM  1 87 

were  respectively  engaged  in  the  attempt  to  pour  the  wine 
of  the  new  educational  thought  into  the  bottles  of  tra- 
ditional school  conditions. 

The  seco;id  reason  for  the  slowness  of  kindergarten 
adoption  by  the  school  was  more  fundamental.  The 
school  laws  of  most  states  did  not  permit  of  the  expendi- 
ture of  public  school  funds  for  the  education  of  children 
of  kindergarten  age.  But  three  states  in  the  Union  have  a 
school  age  of  four  years,  —  Connecticut,  Wisconsin,  and 
Oregon.  These  are,  therefore,  the  only  states  in  which 
children  of  kindergarten  age  can  be  educated  at  public 
expense.  Whether  kindergarten  work  may  legally  be 
substituted  for  the  customary  grade  work  without  legisla- 
tive action  depends  upon  the  school  law  of  the  individual 
states.  In  two  states,  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island, 
there  is  no  age  limit  for  entering  school.  In  these  states, 
therefore,  the  school  age  furnished  no  obstacle  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  kindergartens.  In  eleven  additional  states 
—  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Mississippi,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  and  the  territory  of  New  Mexico  —  the  school 
age  is  five  years.  Children  entering  school  at  the  age  of 
five  are  still  within  the  period  for  which  the  kindergarten 
is  intended.  Whether  kindergarten  work  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  customary  grade  work  during  the  first  year 
depends  in  these  states  also  upon  the  school  law  of  the 
individual  states.  In  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Kansas, 
and  Nebraska  the  law  allows  the  local  school  authorities 
to  determine  the  character  of  the  school  instruction.     If 


l88     THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

they  see  fit  to  substitute  kindergarten  for  the  customary 
first-grade  instruction,  there  is  nothing  in  the  law  to  pre- 
vent their  doing  so.  Unless  the  admission  of  children 
below  the  legal  age  is  desired,  therefore,  no  legislation  is 
needed  in  these  states  to  make  the  kindergarten  a  part  of 
the  school  system.  This  is  also  true  in  Nevada  and  South 
Dakota,  in  which  the  school  age  is  six.  In  the  other  states 
of  the  group  in  question  legislation  was  necessary  before 
kindergartens  could  be  legally  established. 

In  the  states  in  which  the  school  age  is  six  or  more  the 
problem  is  somewhat  different.  In  Alabama  and  Virginia 
the  school  age  is  seven;  in  Texas  it  is  eight.  In  all  the 
other  states  not  already  mentioned,  it  is  six.  That  six- 
year-old  children  can  still  be  benefited  by  attending 
kindergarten,  no  one  will  question.  The  kindergarten  was 
primarily  intended,  however,  for  children  below  that  age, 
and  school  authorities  may  well  question  the  advisability 
of  spending  public  school  money  for  kindergartens  for 
children  of  six  years.  If  the  children  are  to  gain  the  real 
benefit  that  the  kindergarten  is  intended  to  confer,  a  lower- 
ing of  the  school  age  is  needed  in  states  of  this  class.  A 
general  lowering  of  the  school  age  in  a  given  state,  for  the 
sake  of  making  the  establishment  of  kindergartens  pos- 
sible, must  of  necessity  impose  a  hardship,  however,  upon 
the  localities  where  kindergartens  cannot  be  established. 
The  legislation  to  make  the  establishment  of  kindergartens 
possible  in  states  of  this  class  has  usually  specified  that 
children  below  the  legal  age  should  be  admitted  in  case  of 
the  establishment  of  kindergartens  only.     Several  of  the 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL   SYSTEM  189 

states  in  question  have  enacted  such  legislation.  Others 
have  attempted  it  without  success,  and  some  consider  that 
the  time  to  effect  it  has  not  yet  come.  Missouri,  the  first 
state  to  establish  public  kindergartens,  has  a  school  age  of 
six  years.  When  the  initial  experiment  with  the  kinder- 
garten was  made  in  St.  Louis,  children  of  five  years  were 
admitted,  but  the  legal  age  of  entrance  has  since  been 
insisted  upon,  and  the  children  in  the  St.  Louis  kinder- 
gartens, as  well  as  those  in  the  kindergartens  of  Kansas 
City,  are  all,  therefore,  six  or  more  years  of  age.  The 
attempt  to  lower  the  school  age  has  been  made  several 
times  without  success.  The  children  who  attended  the 
first  kindergartens  in  New  Orleans  were  six  likewise,  but 
the  age  at  which  children  might  be  admitted  to  kinder- 
gartens was  lowered  by  the  Constitutional  Convention  of 
1898.  In  several  of  the  Southern  states  that  have  adopted 
the  kindergarten  the  children  are  of  legal  age,  —  six  or 
more.  These  facts  are  mentioned  to  show  the  difficulties 
with  which  the  kindergarten  had  to  contend  in  becoming 
a  part  of  the  school  system.  In  general,  "any  city,  through 
powers  inherent  in  its  charter,  may  maintain  kindergartens 
provided  they  are  supported  wholly  by  local  taxation." 
During  the  decade  from  1880  to  1890,  as  far  as  known, 
but  three  states  enacted  legislation  to  make  the  establish- 
ment of  kindergartens  possible.  These  were  Vermont, 
Indiana,  and  Connecticut.  Cities  in  other  states  that 
adopted  the  kindergarten  during  this  decade  did  so  through 
powers  inherent  in  their  charters,  or  because  legislation 
was  unnecessary. 


190     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

In  spite  of  the  difficulties  still  to  be  surmounted,  the 
kindergarten  made  its  way  into  the  school  from  1880  to 
1890  with  a  fair  degree  of  success.  Boston  had  established 
a  public  school  kindergarten  in  1870,  which  was,  however, 
discontinued  after  a  few  years  of  existence.  The  organi- 
zation of  the  St.  Louis  kindergartens  had  been  effected  in 
1873,  as  has  been  stated.  No  records  can  be  found  to  show 
that  it  was  adopted  by  any  other  public  school  during  the 
decade  from  1870  to  1880  with  the  exception  of  Forest- 
ville,  111.,  a  suburb  of  Chicago  and  now  a  part  of  the  city. 
This  was  for  many  years  the  only  public  school  kinder- 
garten in  Illinois.  The  cities  to  adopt  it  during  the  decade 
from  1880  to  1890  were  as  follows :  Milwaukee,  Wis., 
in  1881 ;  Fort  Collins,  Colo.,  in  1882;  Des  Moines,  la., 
and  Portland,  Me.,  in  1883;  Muskegon,  Mich.,  and  La 
Porte,  Ind.,  in  1884;  New  Orleans,  La.,  Hartford,  Conn., 
and  Sheboygan,  Wis.,  in  1886;  Boston,  Mass.,  and  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  in  1887;  Rochester,  N.Y.,  in  1888;  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.,  in  j 889.  Several  other  cities  are  known  to 
have  adopted  public  school  kindergartens  during  the 
decade,  but  the  exact  date  could  not  be  determined. 
Among  these  are :  Burlington,  Bayfield,  Baraboo,  Lake 
Geneva,  and  Hayward,  Wis. ;  New  Rochelle,  Mt.  Vernon, 
White  Plains,  Yonkers,  Port  Chester,  and  Carlstadt, 
N.Y. ;  Grand  Rapids  and  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. ;  Providence 
and  Newport,  R.I. ;  and  Pueblo,  Colo.  This  is  a  fair 
showing,  since  it  included  five  of  the  larger  cities  of  the 
country,  —  St.  Louis,  Milwaukee,  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
and  New  Orleans.      Each  of  these  cities  was  a  center 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL   SYSTEM  I9I 

whose  influence  could  not  fail  to  be  widely  felt.  It  must 
not  be  supposed,  however,  that  a  complete  system  of 
kindergartens  was  established  at  one  stroke  in  the  cities 
in  question.  In  Philadelphia  the  thirty  kindergartens  that 
had  been  established  and  maintained  by  the  Sub-Primary 
School  Society  were  assumed  by  the  board  of  education, 
and  in  Boston  the  fourteen  that  had  been  established  and 
maintained  by  Mrs.  Shaw.  In  Los  Angeles  twelve  kin- 
dergartens were  adopted  by  the  school,  but  in  most  cases 
the  experiment  was  made  with  one  or  two,  and  additional 
ones  were  opened  as  these  first  ones  proved  successful. 

The  acceptance  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  part  of  the 
school  system  during  the  decade  in  question  was  both 
indicated  and  advanced  by  the  organization  of  kinder- 
garten departments  in  state  and  city  normal  schools. 
Such  departments  had  been  created  in  the  state  normal 
schools  at  Oshkosh,  Wis.,  and  Winona,  Minn.,  in  1880. 
In  1882  they  were  added  to  the  normal  schools  at  Os- 
wego and  Fredonia  in  New  York,  and  at  Emporia, 
Kan.  Connecticut  added  such  departments  to  its  normal 
schools  at  about  the  same  time,  and  Michigan  did  the  same 
in  1889.  Other  schools  may  have  taken  the  same  action, 
but  the  date  of  the  establishment  of  the  kindergarten  depart- 
ments could  not  be  ascertained.  The  training  of  kinder- 
gartners  has  not  been  the  chief  aim  of  these  departments ;  in 
fact  some  of  them  make  no  effort  in  that  direction.  They 
aim  in  large  part  to  acquaint  the  students  in  the  general 
courses  with  the  procedure  of  the  kindergarten  and  the 
principles  upon  which  such  procedure  is  based,  as  a  matter 


192      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

« 

of  educational  intelligence.  Though  not  a  state  institu- 
tion, the  Cook  County  Normal  School,  established  in  1883, 
must  be  included  because  of  its  wide  influence  in  this 
direction,  under  the  leadership  of  Colonel  Parker.  A 
similar  influence  is  exerted  by  those  city  normal  schools 
having  a  general  course  but  including  a  kindergarten  de- 
partment. Of  these,  such  institutions  as  the  Philadelphia 
Normal  School  and  the  Boston  Normal  School  are  con- 
spicuous examples.  "It  is  through  the  normal  school 
that  the  adjustment  of  Froebel's  system  to  our  public 
schools  must  be  made,  if  it  is  to  be  made  at  all,"  said  Com- 
missioner Harris  in  1884,  commenting  on  the  recent  es- 
tablishment of  kindergarten  departments  in  such  schools. 
That  they  have  exerted  a  marked  influence  on  the  spread  of 
Froebelian  thought  is  generally  recognized.  That  they 
will  compel  the  reorganization  of  existing  forms  of  kinder- 
garten training  in  the  near  future  is  evident  to  those  who 
have  made  a  study  of  the  matter. 

'At  the  beginning  of  the  last  decade  of  the  century  the 
kindergarten  outlook  was  fairly  promising,  although  the 
clear-sighted  realized  that  much  effort  was  still  needed  to 
place  it  upon  the  proper  basis  as  a  part  of  the  educational 
system.  In  the  cities  where  the  kindergarten  had  been 
adopted  it  was  winning  golden  opinions,  and  the  results 
were  more  than  justifying  the  hopes  of  its  friends.  At  the 
Toronto  meeting  of  the  N.  E.  A.  in  1891  the  following 
resolutions  were  passed:  "Resolved  that  we  view  with 
pleasure  the  spread  of  kindergarten  principles  and  methods 
and  trust  that  they  may  be  generally  introduced  into  the 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL   SYSTEM  1 93 

public  schools.  To  this  end  we  recommend  that  the  dif- 
ferent states  secure  the  necessary  legislation  that  will  en- 
able communities  to  support  and  maintain  kindergartens 
at  public  expense."  Such  legislation  was  one  of  the  fea- 
tures of  kindergarten  progress  during  the  decade  then  just 
entered  upon. 

The  effort  that  the  kindergartners  of  the  country  felt  it 
necessary  to  make  for  their  cause  at  the  Columbian  Ex- 
position and  the  organization  and  unification  of  the  kinder- 
garten forces  that  such  effort  demanded,  have  been  dis- 
cussed in  another  chapter.  The  kindergarten  cause  would 
have  continued  to  advance  had  there  been  no  such  event, 
but  ten  years  of  effort  without  it  could  hardly  have  accom- 
plished as  much  as  was  accomplished  by  its  means. 
Nothing  short  of  an  occasion  so  momentous  could  have 
brought  the  kindergartners  from  all  parts  of  the  country 
together  and  nothing  less  than  an  opportunity  so  great 
could  have  spurred  them  on  to  the  effort  made.  The 
indorsement  and  influence  of  the  exposition  leaders  and 
managers;  the  legislation  enacted  within  the  next  few 
years ;  the  books  written,  and  the  extension  of  the  kinder- 
garten into  new  circles  of  influence,  —  all  these  combined 
to  make  the  last  decade  of  the  century  a  memorable  one  in 
kindergarten  history. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  even  the  principal 
cities  that  adopted  the  kindergarten  during  the  decade 
under  consideration,  but  the  fact  that  nearly  all  the  larger 
cities  did  so  is  significant.  Though  several  strategic 
cities  adopted   it  before  the  Columbian  Exposition,   the 


194      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

larger  number  that  did  so  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
decade  is  a  proof  of  the  increasing  momentum  occasioned 
by  that  event.  Among  those  adopting  it  the  first  few 
years  of  the  decade  were  the  following:  in  1891,  Racine 
and  Dodgeville,  Wis.,  Lexington,  Ky.,  Utica,  N.Y., 
Saginaw,  Mich.,  San  Jose,  Cal.,  and  Sun  Dance,  Wyo., 
the  latter  being  the  first  public  school  kindergarten  to  be 
established  in  the  state;  in  1892,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  Chicago 
and  Evanston,  111.,  Beloit  and  Superior,  Wis.,  San  Diego, 
Cal.,  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  Cohoes,  N.Y. ;  in  1893,  New 
York  City,  Syracuse,  and  Jamestown,  N.Y.,  Omaha  and 
Lincoln,  Neb.,  and  El  Paso,  Texas,  —  the  first  one  to  be 
established  in  that  state.  During  the  latter  half  of  the 
decade  the  kindergarten  gained  entrance  into  the  following 
cities :  Sacramento,  Cal.,  Denver,  Col.,  Newark,  N. J., 
Cleveland  and  Dayton,  Ohio,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Council 
Bluffs,  la.,  Portland,  Ore.,  Washington,  D.C.,  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  Spokane,  Wash.,  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  and  doubtless 
several  others.  Kindergartens  are  conducted  in  seventy 
or  more  public  schools  in  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny,  but  they 
are  controlled  by  the  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  Kinder- 
garten Associations,  though  the  school  boards  of  the  two 
cities  contribute  generously  to  their  support.  In  the 
Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1897-1898, 
one  hundred  eighty-nine  cities  of  over  eight  thousand 
inhabitants  are  named  as  maintaining  public  kinder- 
gartens. There  are  doubtless  as  many  smaller  ones  doing 
the  same.  The  number  of  kindergartens  given  for  these 
one  hundred  eighty-nine  cities  was  thirteen  hundred  sixty- 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL   SYSTEM  I95 

five,  a  number  known  to  be  much  too  small.  Dr.  Harris 
states  that  the  most  difficult  statistical  work  of  the  Bureau 
for  1897  and  1898  and  the  most  unsatisfactory  in  its  re- 
sults was  that  of  collecting  information  concerning  the 
kindergartens.  The  proportion  of  public  school  kinder- 
gartens sending  returns  was  doubtless  greater  than  the 
proportion  of  private  ones.  Of  the  three  thousand  of 
the  latter  known  to  be  in  existence  nearly  one  half  failed 
to  reply  to  the  request  for  information.  Unsatisfactory  as 
the  data  are,  they  form  some  basis  for  computing  the  entire 
number  of  kindergartens  in  the  country,  public,  private, 
and  charitable.  By  the  end  of  the  century,  five  thousand 
would  be  a  conservative  estimate.  In  1903  Miss  Ander- 
son's Annual,  already  referred  to,  gave  a  list  of  over  four 
hundred  forty  cities  maintaining  public  kindergartens. 
The  discrepancy  between  these  figures  and  those  given  by 
the  Bureau  of  Education  is  due  in  part  probably  to  the 
increase  during  the  five  years  that  had  passed,  but  more 
to  the  other  fact  that  all  the  cities  and  towns  were  given, 
regardless  of  their  size.  According  to  this  the  five  states 
having  the  largest  number  of  cities  in  which  public  school 
kindergartens  have  been  adopted  are :  New  York,  86 ; 
Wisconsin,  71;  New  Jersey,  56;  Michigan,  43;  Massa- 
chusetts, 34.  The  increase  since  the  new  century  opened 
has  been  most  gratifying,  and  includes  several  of  the  larger 
cities  that  had  not  hitherto  adopted  them.  Among  these 
are  Minneapolis,  Baltimore,  Buffalo,  Toledo,  Cincin- 
nati, and  Detroit,  in  the  order  named. 
[The  progress  of  the  kindergarten  in  the  South  since  the 


196      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

opening  of  the  new  century  has  been  particularly  gratify- 
ing. Of  the  189  cities  mentioned  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Education  as  maintaining  kindergartens  in  1897-1898, 
94  were  in  the  North  Atlantic  group ;  but  2  in  the  Southern 
Atlantic ;  8  in  the  South  Central ;  68  in  the  North  Central ; 
and  17  in  the  Western.  In  an  article  prepared  by  Miss 
Eveline  A.  Waldo  of  New  Orleans  for  the  St.  Louis  meet- 
ing of  the  N.  E.  A.  in  1904,  it  is  stated  that  public  school 
kindergartens  have  been  established  in  all  the  Southern 
states  but  four,  —  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Tennessee, 
and  Arkansas.  The  conclusion  that  there  were  none  in 
these  states  was  based  upon  the  fact  that  the  persons 
questioned  had  not  replied  to  her  inquiry.  In  addition 
to  these  four,  Miss  Anderson's  Annual  indicates  that  in 
1903,  at  least,  there  were  none  in  Idaho,  Delaware,  North 
Dakota,  South  Dakota,  and  West  Virginia,  —  a  total  of 
nine.  In  1907  public  school  kindergartens  had  been 
established  in  West  Virginia  also._ 

The  kindergarten  is  becoming  a  part  of  the  school 
system  also  in  the  countries  that  have  recently  come  under 
the  control  of  the  United  States.  It  forms  an  integral 
part  of  the  school  system  of  Cuba,  it  has  secured  a  foot- 
hold in  Porto  Rico,  and  is  making  rapid  progress  in  the 
Philippines.  The  report  of  the  Secretary  of  Public 
Instruction  of  the  Philippine  Islands  for  1904  speaks  of 
the  kindergartens  of  Manila  in  the  following  words : 
"This  work  has  been  rapidly  developed  in  the  past  year. 
Seven  kindergartens  are  maintained,  one  being  for  English- 
speaking  children.     Seven  American  teachers  are  engaged 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL   SYSTEM  1 97 

in  the  work  in  Manila  under  the  direction  of  a  highly  quali- 
fied supervisor.  There  are  twelve  Filipino  assistants. 
The  attendance  has  been  good  and  the  interest  excellent. 
In  many  cases  there  have  been  applications  for  member- 
ship far  exceeding  the  capacity  of  the  schools.  Mothers' 
meetings  have  been  held  vi^ith  exhibits  of  the  work  of  the 
children,  and  these  seem  to  have  been  enthusiastically 
received,  the  attendance  often  running  as  high  as  fifty. 

"As  stated  above,  the  work  has  as  one  of  its  objects 
the  training  of  young  women  to  give  kindergarten  instruc- 
tion in  the  provinces.  The  desire  is  to  have  a  successful 
kindergarten  established  in  each  provincial  capital,  not 
only  for  its  value  to  the  children  attending,  but  also  as  an 
exhibit  to  the  public  of  correct  teaching  principles,  and 
as  a  feature  of  the  training  of  the  primary  teacher." 

The  legislation  which  has  enabled  the  kindergarten  to 
become  a  part  of  the  school  system  to  this  extent  is  worthy 
of  attention.  As  already  stated,  Vermont,  Indiana,  and 
Connecticut  secured  the  legislation  needed  to  make 
kindergartens  possible  in  1888.  The  first  state  to  legis- 
late upon  the  subject  during  the  decade  between  1890. 
and  1900  was  Michigan,  which  in  1891  passed  a  law 
authorizing  the  establishment  of  kindergartens  for  children 
between  the  ages  of  four  and  seven  years.  The  next  state 
to  take  action  was  Ohio,  which  in  1893  secured  the  passage 
of  a  bill  authorizing  the  establishment  of  kindergartens 
for  children  between  four  and  six  years  of  age,  but  pro- 
viding that  they  must  be  supported  wholly  by  local  taxa- 
tion.    Although    bills    providing    for    the    establishment 


198      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

of  kindergartens  had  been  presented  to  two  preceding 
legislatures,  Illinois  did  not  secure  the  passage  of  a  bill 
to  that  effect  until  1895.  Kindergartens  had  been  opened 
in  Chicago,  although  there  was  no  legal  sanction  for  this 
action.  The  bill  referred  to  provided  for  the  support  of 
the  kindergartens,  not  from  the  school  tax  fund  of  the 
state,  but  from  the  local  fund.  This  meant  that  the  kinder- 
garten must  be  submitted  to  the  vote  of  the  people.  It 
was  not  so  submitted,  however,  until  1899,  when  unfore- 
seen circumstances  made  it  inevitable.  A  shortage  of 
the  school  funds  threatened  the  abolishing  of  the  sixty- 
three  kindergartens  that  had  been  established,  and  the 
kindergarten  was  therefore  submitted  to  the  people  at  the 
spring  election.  The  87,000  votes  cast  in  its  favor  to  the 
15,000  cast  against  it  placed  the  kindergarten  upon  a 
secure  footing  in  that  city  from  that  time  on. 

The  stimulus  given  to  the  kindergarten  movement  by 
the  Chicago  Exposition  is  shown  in  part  by  the  number 
of  states  that  passed  laws  before  the  decade  closed,  making 
the  establishment  of  public  school  kindergartens  possible. 
These  were  Washington,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Iowa, 
Wisconsin,  California,  Oregon,  Colorado,  Louisiana, 
Minnesota,  Montana,  New  Jersey,  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, and  the  territory  of  Arizona.  Several  others,  Virginia, 
Oklahoma,  Florida,  Texas,  Utah,  and  Idaho,  have  enacted 
laws  to  the  same  effect  since  the  new  century  opened. 
Laws  authorizing  the  establishment  of  public  school 
kindergartens  have  also  been  passed  in  West  Virginia, 
Maryland,  and  Wyoming,  but  the  date  of  the  legislation 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL   SYSTEM 


199 


in  question  could  not  be  learned.  Since  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  South  Dakota,  and 
Nevada  consider  that  kindergartens  may  be  established 
without  legislation  to  that  effect,  and  legislation  is  un- 
necessary in  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island  because  the 
schools  are  supported  almost  wholly  by  local  taxation,  it 
appears  that  the  kindergarten  has  a  legal  foothold  in  all 
but  eleven  states.  These  are  Delaware,  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Arkansas, 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  and  North  Dakota. 

The  momentum  which  the  kindergarten  gained  in  the 
last  decade  of  the  century  is  indicated  in  part  by  the 
increased  number  of  state  normal  schools  which  added 
kindergarten  departments  during  that  period.  Although 
the  exact  number  cannot  be  determined,  it  is  known  that 
a  large  number  did  so.  Among  these  were  Bridgewater 
and  North  Adams  among  the  Massachusetts  normal 
schools;  the  Providence  Normal  School  in  Rhode  Island; 
Albany,  Buffalo,  Plattsburg,  and  Cortland,  among  the 
normal  schools  of  New  York;  Slippery  Rock  and  Cali- 
fornia among  those  of  Pennsylvania;  Mt.  Pleasant  and 
Marquette  among  these  of  Michigan ;  Chico,  Los  Angeles, 
and  San  Jose,  among  those  of  California;  Greely,  in 
Colorado ;  St.  Cloud  and  Mankato  among  those  in  Min- 
nesota; Milwaukee  and  River  Falls  in  Wisconsin; 
and  those  at  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  Peru,  Nebraska,  and 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.  Kindergarten  departments  have 
since  been  added  to  the  normal  schools  at  Normal,  111. ;  at 
Cedar  Falls,  Iowa ;  at  Natchitoches,  I>a. ;  at  Kalamazoo, 


200     THE  KINDERGARTEN  IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

Mich, ;  at  Duluth,  Minn. ;  at  Kirksville,  Mo. ;  at  Lock 
Haven,  Pa. ;  at  Farmville,  Va. ;  Stevens  Point  and  Superior, 
Wis. ;  and  at  the  three  newly  established  normal  schools 
in  Oklahoma.  This  list,  known  to  be  incomplete,  in- 
cluded twenty-one  states  and  not  less  than  fifty  institu- 
tions. What  may  not  be  hoped  for  from  the  influence 
of  these  institutions  for  the  cause  of  the  kindergarten  and 
of  educational  progress?  The  kindergartners  belonging 
to  this  class  show  an  energy  and  an  alertness  as  one  meets 
them  at  I.  K.  U.  gatherings,  that  testifies  to  their  influence 
in  their  own  localities,  and  promises  much  for  the  future 
of  kindergarten  training.  Most  of  them  are  relatively 
young,  and  have  not  yet  gained  a  national  reputation, 
but  from  among  them  will  come  some  of  the  future  leaders 
of  the  movement. 

The  student  of  kindergarten  history  cannot  fail  to  be 
impressed  by  the  increasing  number  of  institutions  for 
higher  education,  not  supported  by  state  funds,  that  are 
adding  kindergarten  departments.  While  the  claim  to  the 
title  of  college  or  university  may  be  somewhat  doubtful 
in  the  case  of  a  few,  the  list  of  such  institutions  given  by 
Miss  Anderson  contains  several  of  national  reputation. 
It  is  as  follows :  Winthrop  Normal  and  Industrial  College, 
Rock  Hill,  S.C. ;  Stetson  University,  Deland,  Fla. ;  Drake 
University,  Des  Moines,  la. ;  Friends  University,  Wichita, 
Kansas,  and  Campbell  University,  Holton,  Kansas;  Kee 
Mar  College,  Hagarstown,  Md. ;  Alma  College,  Alma, 
Mich.;  Wesleyan  University,  Lincoln,  Nebraska;  Adelphi 
College,  and  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. ;   Columbia 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL  SYSTEM  20I 

University,  N.Y. ;  the  University  of  Chicago;  Latter 
Day  Saints  University,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah;  Stout 
Manual  Training  School,  Menomonie,  Wis. ;  Epworth 
University,  Oklahoma  City,  Okla. ;  Valparaiso  College 
and  Northern  Indiana  Normal  School,  Valparaiso,  Ind. ; 
and  Temple  College,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

In  addition  to  the  departments  for  kindergarten  train- 
ing in  these  institutions  and  in  the  state  normal  schools 
already  mentioned,  there  are  not  less  than  one  hundred 
training  schools  that  are  either  private  or  supported  by 
cities  or  associations.  This  increase  in  the  number  of 
training  schools,  and  the  growing  necessity  for  kinder- 
garten supervision  in  the  larger  cities,  has  given  rise  to  a 
new  need  in  the  kindergarten  world,  —  the  need  for 
adequate  training  for  the  kindergarten  training  teachers 
and  supervisors.  This  need  is  being  admirably  met  at 
the  present  time  at  Teachers  College.  The  courses  of 
instruction  offered  by  this  institution  are  such  as  to  ac- 
quaint the  would-be  leader  with  the  theory  and  practice 
of  the  kindergarten  in  its  relation  to  the  whole  of  educa- 
tion, and  to  familiarize  her  with  the  larger  problems  of 
kindergarten  training  and  supervision. 

The  growing  appreciation  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  part 
of  the  state  educational  system  was  further  shown  during 
the  last  decade  of  the  century  by  the  establishment  of 
kindergartens  in  state  homes  for  dependent  and  neglected 
children,  and  in  institutions  for  the  defective  classes  — 
the  blind,  deaf,  and  feeble-minded.  A  beginning  had 
been  made  in  that  direction  before  1890,  but  a  beginning 


202      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

only.  The  story  of  dependent  and  neglected  childhood 
and  its  care  and  education  is  both  sad  and  long.  There 
are  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  over  six  hundred 
institutions,  public  and  private,  for  such  children,  which 
in  1890  enrolled  65,000  children.  How  many  of  these  were 
of  kindergarten  age  no  one  can  tell,  but  doubtless  a  goodly 
number.  State  provision  has  been  made  in  a  number 
of  instances,  either  in  the  form  of  state  homes,  county 
homes,  or  support  in  private  homes  or  institutions.  When 
such  institutions  are  near  public  schools  the  older  children 
attend  these,  but  the  children  of  kindergarten  age  cannot 
easily  do  so  unless  the  distance  is  short.  The  need  of  a 
kindergarten  in  the  building  thus  becomes  apparent. 
Eleven  states  have  made  provision  for  homeless  children 
in  state  homes,  and  three  in  county  homes,  and  in  a  number 
of  these  kindergartens  have  been  established.  The  first 
of  the  state  homes  to  be  built  was  that  at  Coldwater, 
Michigan,  in  1885.  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and  Rhode 
Island  made  a  similar  provision  the  same  year,  and  Kansas, 
Colorado,  and  Texas  did  so  soon  after.  The  other  states 
having  such  institutions  are  Nebraska,  IMontana,  Nevada, 
and  Iowa.  A  kindergarten  was  connected  with  the  Michi- 
gan institution  almost  from  the  beginning,  and  with  the 
institutions  in  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  soon  after  their 
opening.  No  statistics  concerning  the  number  of  kinder- 
gartens in  such  homes  have  ever  been  gathered.  Miss 
Anderson  gives  but  twenty,  though  this  is  known  to  be  far 
too  small.  The  excellent  results  obtained  in  the  insti- 
tutions where  kindergartens  have  been  adopted  cannot 
but  increase  their  number  in  the  near  future. 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL   SYSTEM 


203 


The  value  of  the  kindergarten  for  defective  children  had 
been  realized  before  the  last  decade  of  the  century,  but 
its  general  introduction  into  institutions  for  the  deaf, 
blind,  and  feeble-minded  belongs  to  the  decade  in  question. 
Such  introduction  is  interwoven  with  the  history  of  the 
efforts  to  instruct  these  different  classes  of  defectives. 
In  the  earlier  years  children  were  not  admitted  to  the 
schools  for  the  deaf  until  the  period  for  which  the  kinder- 
garten is  intended  was  over.  When  this  age  was  lowered, 
as  it  has  been  in  recent  years,  the  kindergarten  began  to 
be  considered,  and  according  to  Mr.  Edward  E.  Allen, 
in  Butler's  "Education  in  the  United  States,"  "kinder- 
garten methods  have  been  made  use  of  more  and  more, 
although  no  true  kindergarten  can  be  conducted  in  schools 
where  language  comes  so  late  and  so  hard,  where  even 
natural  signs  are  arbitrarily  interdicted,  and  where  there 
can  be  no  music.  But  the  occupations  and  games  are 
widely  applicable,  and  are  universally  used."  In  1901 
there  were  one  hundred  eighteen  institutions  for  teach- 
ing the  deaf,  according  to  Dexter's  "  History  of  Edu- 
cation in  the  United  States."  Of  the  fifty-seven  state 
institutions,  thirty  had  kindergartens.  With  the  tendency 
to  substitute  oral  instruction  for  instruction  in  the  sign 
language,  and  day  schools  for  the  large  institutions,  the 
kindergarten  will  become  still  more  general.  Now  that 
kindergarten  departments  have  been  added  to  so  many 
institutions  pupils  are  urged  to  enter  at  an  earlier  age. 

In  the  institutions  for  the  blind  also,  the  kindergarten 
has  added  much  to  the  children's  enjoyment  and  profit. 


204     THE  KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

Here,  too,  the  age  at  which  children  are  admitted  has  been 
lowered  in  recent  years.  Hence  kindergartens  have  been 
established,  and  they  are  proving  of  the  greatest  benefit. 
On  this  point  Mr.  Allen  says :  "  Children  with  good  sight 
and  hearing  have  got  along  without  kindergarten  train- 
ing and  so  have  blind  children,  but  of  all  the  useful  means 
of  reaching  and  developing  the  average  blind  child,  none 
is  so  effective  as  a  properly  conducted  kindergarten.  It 
is  not  easy  to  overestimate  the  importance  of  hearing 
in  giving  children  language  and  all  that  this  means ;  song 
and  the  joy  it  brings  and  the  deep  feeling  it  inspires. 
The  practical  knowledge  of  things  comes  to  the  blind 
through  the  hand,  their  fingers  being  veritable  projections 
of  the  brain.  Thus  must  not  only  their  hands  be  trained 
to  sensitiveness  of  touch,  but  to  be  strong  and  supple,  so 
that  they  may  indeed  be  dextrous ;  for  as  their  hands  are, 
so  are  their  brains.  The  kindergarten  cultivates  ear  and 
heart  and  hand  and  brain  as  nothing  else  does.  Even 
color  is  not  wholly  omitted.  Kindergartens  for  the  blind 
may  be  true  kindergartens  in  every  sense  of  the  word. 
A  kindergartner  of  fully  sensed  children  would  miss  only 
the  brightness  coming  from  the  untrammeled  ability 
to  run  and  play  and  the  absence  of  all  that  sight  brings. 
The  kindergartens  for  the  blind  have  as  their  end  and 
aim  this  very  rousing  of  children,  and  the  putting  them  in 
touch  with  their  surroundings."  As  Mr.  Allen  is  super- 
intendent of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Institution  for  the 
Blind,  he  knows  whereof  he  speaks.  How  many  of  the 
thirty-nine  institutions  for  the  blind  have  kindergartens 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL   SYSTEM  205 

could  not  be  ascertained.  Mr.  Dexter  says  that  "the 
kindergarten  is  an  almost  universal  part  of  such  institu- 
tions and  that  no  other  method  of  education  is  so  effective 
as  the  Froebeh'an."  He  adds  that  the  games  and  occu- 
pations seem  to  meet  exactly  the  needs  of  the  coordinations 
between  the  senses  still  active  and  that  the  pupils  seem  to 
miss  but  little  that  the  perfect  child  gains. 

To  no  class  of  defectives  has  the  kindergarten  been  more 
of  a  boon  than  to  the  feeble-minded.  The  story  of  those 
lacking  in  mental  capacity  is  a  sad  one,  and  provision  for 
their  care  and  such  development  as  is  possible  to  them  is  still 
in  its  infancy.  The  present  thought  concerning  the  educa- 
tion of  the  blind  and  the  deaf,  particularly  the  latter,  is  that 
segregation  in  large  institutions  apart  from  normally  con- 
stituted companions  is  not  the  best  method  of  education. 
With  respect  to  the  feeble-minded,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
becoming  more  and  more  evident  that  institutional  life 
is  the  only  safe  and  sensible  life.  In  the  existing  thirty- 
two  institutions  for  the  feeble-minded,  in  1901,  kinder- 
garten instruction  plays  an  important  part.  "The  normal 
child  does  not  need  to  be  taught  every  step,"  says  Mr. 
Allen  again.  "His  powers  of  attention,  his  will,  his  desire, 
his  own  originality,  enable  him  to  fill  the  gaps  in  his 
instruction  from  his  own  daily  experiences.  In  fact  he 
learns  more  out  of  school  than  in.  On  the  contrary  the 
feeble-minded  child  has  to  be  taught  each  step,  hence  his 
education  is  extremely  slow.  The  simple  occupations 
of  the  kindergarten  fit  the  child  of  from  eight  to  twelve 
years  of  age  as  they  do  bright  children  of  four  or  five. 


206     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

The  teacher  clevises  all  means  of  busy  work  for  them, 
using  coarse  material.  No  instruction  is  in  more  general 
use  or  is  more  helpful  to  the  children  than  that  of  the 
kindergarten.  After  this  their  education  continues  on 
a  very  elementary  plane  beyond  which  it  is  impossible 
for  them  to  go." 

One  of  the  most  interesting  developments  of  the  decade 
along  kindergarten  lines  was  the  introduction  of  the  kinder- 
garten into  the  government  Indian  schools,  —  the  result 
of  Professor  W.  N.  Hailman's  appointment  to  the  super- 
intendency  of  these  schools  in  1894.  The  Indian  schools 
under  governmental  control  are  of  four  classes.  To  the 
first  class  belong  the  day  schools,  one  hundred  forty-three 
in  number,  in  1900.  These  are  held  in  Indian  villages 
or  near  encampments.  They  are  ungraded  in  character, 
and  are  usually  taught  by  a  man  and  his  wife.  One  of 
the  chief  purposes  of  these  schools  is  to  teach  better  modes 
of  living  as  well  as  the  rudiments  of  the  school  arts.  To 
the  second  class  belong  the  Reservation  Boarding  Schools, 
numbering  seventy-five.  These  are  graded  schools  partly 
industrial  in  character,  maintained  on  the  reservations. 
It  is  in  these  that  the  kindergartens  have  been  introduced 
to  the  number  of  forty.  Of  these  Professor  Hailman 
says  in  Butler's  "  Education  in  the  United  States  "  :  "The 
experiment  (of  introducing  kindergartens)  proved  emi- 
nently successful.  The  children  entered  into  the  work 
and  games  with  zest  and  intelligence.  Their  traditional 
shyness  and  reticence  yielded  naturally  and  readily  to 
their  objective  interest  in  the  exercises.     They  acquired 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL   SYSTEM  207 

the  English  idiom  with  much  ease  and  learned  to  express 
their  ideas  fully  and  with  eagerness.  Moreover,  the  use 
of  the  kindergarten  methods  and  of  kindergarten  materials 
has  entered  the  primary  classes  with  similar  good  results. 
The  children  spend  from  one  and  one  half  to  two  hours 
each  day  in  these  kindergartens."  In  commenting  upon 
this  work  in  1897,  The  Kindergarten  Review  said:  "In  the 
Indian  schools  four  years  ago  there  was  not  a  single  kinder- 
garten. Now  there  are  over  forty,  and  the  primary  work 
is  thoroughly  vitalized  with  the  spirit  of  Froebel." 

To  still  another  class  —  the  highest  —  belong  the 
Industrial  Training  Schools,  ten  in  number.  This  list 
includes  the  school  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  which  enrolls  eight 
hundred  students,  Haskell  Institute,  at  Lawrence,  Kan., 
and  several  other  institutions  of  high  rank.  To  three 
of  these  a  normal  department  has  been  added  to  train 
Indian  young  men  and  women  for  the  work  of  teaching. 
The  normal  courses  in  these  institutions  correspond  fairly 
to  the  courses  of  other  normal  schools.  At  Haskell 
Institute  those  who  have  completed  the  normal  course 
are  given  the  opportunity  of  devoting  an  additional  year 
to  kindergarten  training  under  the  director  of  the  kinder- 
gartncr  of  the  institution. 

Considering  what  has  been  accomplished  in  these  dif- 
ferent directions  toward  the  introduction  of  the  kinder- 
garten into  the  school  system,  there  seems  no  good  reason 
for  the  discouragement  that  overzealous  kindergartncrs 
occasionally  feel,  nor  does  there  seem  to  be  any  immediate 
danger  that  "the  kindergarten  will  have  to  go,"  as  Polly 


2o8      THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

Oliver  said  of  the  boarders,  —  a  prophecy  sometimes 
expressed  by  its  critics.  Instead,  according  to  present 
indications,  the  school  system  a  few  years  hence  may  be 
voicing  the  sentiment  expressed  by  a  normal  school  presi- 
dent w^ho  viewed  the  increasing  number  of  applicants  for 
the  kindergarten  course  with  something  like  alarm,  re- 
marking, "If  this  keeps  on,  the  rest  of  the  school  will  soon 
be  little  more  than  an  annex  to  the  kindergarten  depart- 
ment." But  "new  occasions  bring  new  duties,"  and  the 
twentieth  century  is  bringing  problems  of  its  own  for  the 
twentieth-century  kindergartners  to  solve.  The  reorgan- 
ization of  kindergarten  thought  and  procedure  that  has 
hardly  more  than  begun  will  tax  the  insight  of  the  wisest 
before  it  is  completed.  The  effect  of  the  kindergarten 
upon  the  school  and  of  current  educational  thought  upon 
the  kindergarten  have  not  yet  been  clearly  perceived  or 
stated  because  the  process  is  not  yet  completed.  Super- 
intendent C.  B.  Gilbert  considered  the  introduction  of 
the  kindergarten  into  the  public  schools  "the  greatest 
step  in  the  educational  history  of  the  country,  with  the 
exception  of  the  founding  of  normal  schools."  But  the 
story  of  the  kindergarten  in  the  school  is  but  partially 
told  with  the  recital  of  its  introduction.  The  concluding 
chapters  of  the  story  are  those  that  relate  to  its  effect  upon 
the  school  itself,  and  the  reaction  of  the  school  upon  its 
own  thought  and  procedure.  These  are  the  topics  that 
will  be  discussed  in  the  following  pages. 


CHAPTER    XI 

Kindergarten  Influence  in  Elementary  Education 

•n^HE  kindergarten  has  been  one  of  the  vital  influences 
in  American  education.  Its  influence  has  been  exerted 
along  many  different  lines  and  upon  many  different  groups 
of  people.  It  forms  a  happy  memory  in  the  lives  of  the 
three  million  or  more  children  who  have  participated 
in  its  procedure  since  the  first  kindergarten  was  opened 
in  America.y  It  has  interpreted  life  from  a  higher  stand- 
point to  the  twenty-five  thousand  or  more  young  women 
who  have  taken  courses  in  kindergarten  training.  It 
has  aided  the  thousands  of  mothers  who  have  made  a 
study  of  its  principles  in  meeting  the  daily  problems  of 
the  home.  It  has  enabled  the  Sunday  school  teachers  of 
the  land  to  organize  the  religious  instruction  of  little 
children  upon  a  more  fundamental  basis.  It  has  given 
teachers  of  every  grade  a  new  insight  into  the  educational 
process,  and  has  taught  them  to  direct  the  development 
of  their  pupils  with  more  wisdom  than  before.  That  the 
attitude  of  the  world  toward  childhood  has  been  revolu- 
tionized during  the  present  generation,  that  motherhood 
has  taken  on  a  new  and  higher  significance,  and  that 
primary  education  has  been  transformed  in  recent  years 
largely  as  a  result  of  kindergarten  influence  are  facts  so 
p  209 


210     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

thoroughly  recognized  as  to  need  but  a  passing  mention. 
In  enriching  the  lives  of  the  children  who  have  participated 
'  in  kindergarten  procedure,  in  interpreting  the  significance 
of  motherhood  anew  to  the  women  of  the  land,  and  in 
setting  a  new  and  different  standard  for  the  teacher,  the 
kindergarten  has  rendered  an  invaluable  service.  As 
the  value  of  its  influence  is  recognized,  the  extension  of 
the  kindergarten  has  become  one  of  the  features  of  educa- 
tional progress. 

Great  as  the  value  of  the  kindergarten  may  be  to  the 
children  who  participate  in  its  exercises,  its  greatest 
service  to  education  cannot  be  rendered  by  the  mere 
addition  of  kindergartens  to  the  graded  school  system. 
If  the  principles  upon  which  kindergarten  practice  is 
based  are  valid,  they  must  be  valid  not  alone  for  the  stage 
of  development  which  the  kindergarten  covers  but  also 
for  the  other  stages  as  well.  jThe  powers  awakened 
during  the  kindergarten  years"  need  progressive  and 
continuous  exercise  to  reach  the  development  of  which 
they  are  capable,  and  unless  the  work  that  follows  is 
based  upon  the  same  general  principles  the  development 
is  arrested.  The  fruit  of  the  kindergarten  tree  needs  a 
longer  time  to  ripen  than  that  afforded  by  the  kinder- 
garten years  alone.  The  transformation  that  the  work, 
of  the  primary  grades  has  undergone  in  recent  years  bears 
testimony  to  the  recognition  of  these  facts.  The  progress 
of  the  kindergarten  movement  is  measured  in  part  by  the 
increasing  number  of  kindergartens.  It  is  measured  no 
less  by  the  increasing  application  of  its  principles  to  grade 


INFLUENCE   IN  ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION  211 

work.  The  multiplication  of  kindergartens  is  relatively 
a  simple  matter.  The  reorganization  of  the  elementary 
school  has  been  a  task  of  far  greater  complexity.  The 
kindergarten  embodied  a  new  ideal  of  education;  it 
implied  a  different  attitude  toward  childhood;  it  utilized 
for  the  child's  development  means  other  than  the  tra- 
ditional ones ;  it  employed  different  methods  of  procedure. 
The  application  of  kindergarten  principles  to  primary 
school  practice  meant  nothing  less,  therefore,  than  the 
reorganization  of  the  school,  —  the  reconstruction  of  its 
ideals,  the  enrichment  of  its  curriculum,  the  adoption 
of  new  and  different  methods.  Since  the  kindergarten 
embodied  the  principles  of  the  new  educational  phi- 
losophy, it  alone  would  in  great  measure  have  effected  the 
transformation  of  the  school.  But  at  the  time  when  its 
influence  began  to  be  felt  other  forces  were  at  work  in 
American  life  —  forces  which  created  other  movements 
destined  to  play  a  part  in  the  transformation  of  American 
education.  These  movements  differed  in  origin,  aim, 
and  scope,  but  all  reenforced  the  influence  exerted  by  the 
kindergarten  and  hastened  the  transformation  which  it 
would  have  effected.  The  modern  primary  school  is 
the  complex  product  of  these  many  influences. 

While  the  present  procedure  of  the  primary  schools  bears 
the  stamp  of  the  kindergarten  too  unmistakably  to  leave 
one  in  doubt  as  to  the  source  from  which  the  transforming 
influence  has  come,  other  influences  have  played  their 
part  and  have  left  their  impress.  Of  this  the  art  and 
manual  training  movement,  which  next  to  the  kindergarten 


212     THE  KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

has  been  the  strongest  influence  in  the  transformation 
of  the  school,  is  an  illustration.  The  child  study  move- 
ment and  the  Herbartian  movement  of  a  later  date  are 
other  examples  of  movements  that  have  influenced  the 
aims  and  methods  of  elementary  education  and  left  their 
mark  upon  school  work.  Any  discussion  of  kindergarten 
influence  that  does  not  recognize  these  other  movements 
and  their  reciprocal  influence  upon  the  kindergarten  and 
upon  each  other  must  therefore  be  inadequate.  To 
comprehend  the  primary  school  of  the  present  it  is  neces- 
sary to  glance  briefly  at  its  past,  and  at  the  movements 
that  have  played  a  part  in  its  transformation. 

The  primary  school,  as  that  term  is  now  understood, 
has  been  in  existence  but  little  more  than  forty  years. 
The  system  of  grading  that  created  it  did  not  come  into 
general  use  until  after  the  Civil  War.  The  traditional 
curriculum  of  the  sThree  R's  with  which  it  began  was 
gradually  modified  by  the  adoption  of  new  subjects,  and 
as  early  as  the  seventies  it  showed  signs  of  progress. 
Object  lessons  had  become  general  as  a  result  of  Pes- 
jlalozzian  influence,  emanating  from  the  Oswego  Normal 
School.  In  1870  drlwing  had  been  introduced  into  the 
schools  of  Boston.  This  was  the  indirect  result  of  the 
London  and  Paris  expositions  in  185 1  and  1867,  which 
had  shown  the  value  of  art  instruction  as  an  educational 
factor.  Although  these  additions  had  been  made  in  the 
more  progressive  communities,  formal  instruction  was  the 
rule  and  the  repression  of  childish  activity  the  established 
form  of  procedure.     The  word  method  of  teaching  reading 


INFLUENCE   IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  213 

had,  it  is  true,  supplanted  the  time-honored  drill  in  the 
A,  B,  C's,  but  with  few  exceptions  the  methods  of  instruc- 
tion had  not  yet  been  touched  by  the  new  spirit.  The 
musical  instruction,  for  which  such  books  as  "Loomis's 
First  Steps"  furnished  the  basis,  was  formal  in  the  extreme, 
and  the  rot^  song  was  unrecognized.  The  instruction 
in  drawiflg  was  based  upon  geometrical  principles,  and 
had  no  foundation  in  children's  native  interests.  Form 
study  did  not  become  the  basis  for  art  instruction  until 
1880,  and  not  until  much  later  did  color  work  become  a 
recognized  feature.  The  free  expression  of  the  children's 
ideas  by  means  of  clay  modeling,  paper  cutting,  or  paint- 
ing was  unknown  in  school  work.  The  need  of  physical 
activity  in  the  form  of  play  and  games  and  the  value  of 
contact  with  nature  were  also  unrecognized.  The  teachers 
having  the  least  training  and  experience  were  placed  in 
charge  of  the  youngest  children  and  paid  the  lowest 
salaries.  Such  was  the  primary  school  in  the  early  seven- 
ties, when  the  kindergarten  came. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  changes  that  have  taken  place 
in  elementary  education  during  the  past  thirty  or  more 
years  have  been  the  result  of  many  different  influences. 
These  influences  may  be  grouped  into  two  periods,  — 
the  first  beginning  at  about  the  time  of  the  Philadelphia 
Exposition,  and  continuing  until  about  the  time  of  the 
exposition  at  Chicago;  and  the  second  beginning  with 
that  event  and  continuing  until  the  present  time.  The 
movements  exerting  the  greatest  influence  during  the 
first  of  these  periods  were  the  kindergarten  movement, 


214      THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

the  art  and  manual  training  movement,  and  the  nature 
study  movement.  These  movements  continued  theii 
influence  during  the  second  period,  but  they  were  reen- 
forced  by  the  new  psychology,  child  study,  and  Herbar- 
tianism.  The  Philadelphia  Exposition  was  a  great  stimu- 
lus to  art  education.  As  a  result  "an  immediate  wave 
of  art  enthusiasm  spread  over  the  country,"  and  art 
instruction  became  a  part  of  the  school  curriculum  in 
every  progressive  community.  The  kindergarten  move- 
ment also  felt  the  stimulus  of  the  exposition.  In  1870 
there  were  but  ten  kindergartens  in  the  United  States. 
In  1880  the  number  had  increased  to  four  hundred.  In 
spite  of  the  fact  that  with  the  exception  of  those  in  St. 
Louis  these  kindergartens  were  all  private  or  charitable, 
they  exerted  an  influence  upon  the  school  system  of  many 
a  city,  even  upon  those  that  did  not  adopt  them  as  a  part 
of  the  public  school  system  later. 

The  nature  study  movement  had  a  different  origin. 
The  introduction  of  science  into  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities had  shown  the  necessity  for  cultivating  the 
children's  powers  of  observation  during  the  early  years; 
hence  courses  in  nature  study  for  the  grades  were  advo- 
cated and  attempted.  The  new  interest  in  literature 
called  also  for  the  beginning  of  literary  instruction  in  the 
elementary  school,  and  hence  the  story  began  to  receive 
recognition  as  an  educational  instrument.  The  influences 
that  combined  to  reconstruct  elementary  education  thus 
came  from  three  different  sources:  from  the  industrial 
world,  which  demanded  art  instruction  as  a  preparation 


INFLUENCE   IN   ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION  215 

for  industrial  life;  from  the  colleges,  which  insisted 
that  the  proper  intellectual  habits  should  be  formed 
and  formed  early;  and  from  the  educational  reformers, 
who  proclaimed  the  doctrines  of  Pestalozzi  and  Froebel 
as  a  means  of  awakening  the  people  to  a  realization  of 
education  as  something  more  than  instruction  in  the 
traditional  school  arts. 

Since  it  took  time  for  the  new  influences  to  make  them- 
selves felt,  the  breaking  up  of  the  old  regime  did  not  become 
general  until  the  decade  between  1880  and  1890.  That 
decade  may  therefore  be  called  the  decade  of  experiment 
and  transition.  To  the  uninitiated  it  was  a  decade  of 
confusion.  The  addition  of  new  subjects  meant  either 
the  displacing  of  established  ones  or  the  overcrowding 
of  the  program,  —  at  least  a  disturbing  of  the  established 
order.  The  new  subjects  called  also  for  the  use  of  new 
and  unfamiliar  methods,  —  another  element  of  uncer- 
tainty. Since  teachers  and  even  superintendents  did 
not  always  understand  the  purposes  of  the  new  subjects, 
their  relation  to  the  traditional  ones,  and  the  methods  to 
be  used  in  presenting  them,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  results 
should  have  been  unsatisfactory  many  times,  and  that 
discontent  should  have  been  rife,  both  in  the  teaching 
ranks  and  in  the  community.  In  course  of  time  an  adjust- 
ment to  the  new  conditions  was  effected.  The  ideals  that 
called  for  new  subjects  and  new  methods  were  more 
clearly  apprehended  and  a  new  unity  was  worked  out, 
both  in  curriculum  and  methods.  The  curriculum  of 
the  present  has  an  organic  unity  of  its  own,  based  upon 


2l6     THE  KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

the  experiences,  the  activities,  and  the  interests  of  children 
in  the  different  stages  of  development,  but  the  school  in 
which  such  a  curriculum  obtains  is  separated  from  the 
school  of  the  eighties  by  an  immeasurable  distance. 
The  progress  made  since  that  time  is  due  to  the  kinder- 
garten and  to  the  movements  that  characterized  the  decade 
between  1890  and  1900,  —  the  new  psychology,  child 
study,  and  Herbartianism.  The  effect  of  these  will  be 
touched  upon  later.  There  have  been  three  stages, 
therefore,  in  the  evolution  of  the  modern  primary  school, 
—  the  first,  in  which  the  old  ideals  prevailed ;  the  second, 
in  which  a  transition  from  the  old  ideals  and  methods 
to  the  new  was  in  progress;  and  the  third,  in  which  the 
new  determine  both  curriculum  and  method.  But  since 
progress  has  not  been  equally  uniform  in  all  sections  of 
the  country,  schools  may  be  found  representing  each  of 
these  stages.  Some  still  embody  the  old  ideals  and  have 
not,  therefore,  progressed  beyond  the  first  stage;  others, 
the  great  majority,  in  fact,  have  accepted  the  new  ideals 
in  theory,  but  are  still  struggling  with  the  problems  of 
their  application;  still  others,  relatively  few  in  number 
but  constantly  increasing,  have  satisfactorily  in  practice 
worked  out  the  new  ideals. 

The  knowledge  of  educational  conditions  thus  outlined 
is  necessary  as  a  background  for  the  study  of  kindergarten 
influence  and  progress.  It  is  not  difhcult  to  see  how  the 
drawing,  manual  training,  or  other  movements  have 
influenced  the  character  and  methods  of  the  school. 
When  the  adoption  of  a  new  subject  was  decided  upon  its 


INFLUENCE   IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  217 

adaptation  to  the  several  grades  was  carefully  considered^ 
the  teachers  were  given  instruction  in  the  methods  to  be 
employed,  and  adequate  supervision  was  provided  to 
meet  the  problems  of  administration.  In  the  case  of  the 
kindergarten  it  was  very  different.  When  kindergartens 
were  added  to  the  school  system,  a  supervisor  was  engaged 
in  the  larger  cities,  it  is  true,  but  her  duties  seldom  included 
instruction  to  the  grade  teachers  in  the  methods  of  apply- 
ing kindergarten  principles  to  their  particular  work. 
In  fact,  so  little  direct  effort  was  made  to  bring  kinder- 
garten influence  to  bear  upon  school  work  that  one  may 
well  ask,  What  means  did  the  kindergarten  adopt  to 
aflfect  school  procedure  so  vitally?  The  introduction 
of  drawing,  music,  manual  training,  and  physical  exercise 
into  the  school  curriculum  lessened  the  apparent  differences 
between  the  kindergarten  and  the  school,  but  did  not 
necessarily  carry  with  it  the  spirit  and  method  of  the  kinder- 
garten, nor  did  it  insure  the  attitude  towards  childhood 
for  which  the  kindergarten  stands.  The  primary  teacher 
of  the  present  has  absorbed  the  spirit  of  the  kindergarten 
by  observation  and  training,  though  she  may  be  uncon- 
scious of  that  fact.  The  approval  which  the  kindergarten 
received  compelled  the  teacher  of  the  early  day,  steeped 
in  the  formalism  that  characterized  the  school  work  of 
that  time,  to  acquaint  herself  with  kindergarten  procedure, 
and  as  far  as  possible  to  adopt  its  spirit  and  method. 
This  was  no  easy  task.  Where  kindergartens  existed 
teachers  diligently  visited  them;  when  they  did  not  exist 
the   teachers'   only  resource   was  the  available  literature 


2l8     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

of  the  subject  or  attendance  at  some  of  the  summer  schools, 
such  as  those  conducted  by  Colonel  Parker  at  the  Cook 
County  Normal  School,  or  W.  N.  Hailman  at  La  Porte, 
Indiana,  that  made  a  specialty  of  the  kindergarten  and 
its  principles.  While  the  study  of  kindergarten  theory 
did  much  to  produce  the  change  in  attitude,  the  main 
source  of  inspiration  was  the  kindergarten  itself.  The 
primary  teacher  who  visited  a  kindergarten  could  not 
fail  to  be  impressed  by  the  kindergartner's  attitude  toward 
her  children,  —  by  her  cooperation  with  them  in  the 
spirit  of  comradeship  and  by  her  sympathetic  insight  into 
their  interests  and  needs.  She  was  impressed  no  less  by 
the  children's  attitude  tow-ard  their  work,  by  the  spon- 
taneity of  their  interest,  and  by  their  dehght  in  the  use  of 
the  bright-colored  material.  The  games  were  a  revela- 
tion to  her,  since  they  showed  that  there  could  be  freedom 
without  disorder;  the  interest  which  the  children  took 
in  the  kindergarten  songs  made  her  own  drill  on  scales 
and  intervals  seem  little  better  than  drudgery;  and  the 
attractiveness  of  the  kindergarten  room  gave  her  helpful 
suggestions  concerning  the  value  of  beauty  as  a  factor  in 
education.  In  short,  recognizing  that  there  was  possible 
an  order  of  things  very  different  from  that  to  which  she 
was  accustomed,  she  determined  to  profit  by  the  lesson. 
If  kindergarten  procedure  could  be  made  so  interesting, 
why  not  school  procedure  as  well?  Why,  she  asked, 
should  there  not  be  pictures  upon  the  walls  and  plants 
in  the  windows,  in  the  primary  room  as  well  as  in  the 
kindergarten?    Why   should    the    kindergarten    children 


INFLUENCE   IN   ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION  219 

have  bright-colored  material  and  the  primary  children 
none?  Why  could  not  the  songs  and  many  of  the  games 
used  in  the  kindergarten  be  used  also  in  the  primary 
department?  The  educational  leaders  were  beginning 
to  ask  the  same  questions,  and  to  urge  the  utilization  of 
childish  activity  in  the  primary  grades,  but  no  arguments 
were  half  so  convincing  as  the  example  of  the  kindergarten 
itself.  As  a  result  the  characteristic  features  of  the  kinder- 
garten were  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  adopted  by  the 
school.  Exercises  with  kindergarten  material  became 
common,  and  kindergarten  songs  and  games  were  incor- 
porated into  the  procedure  of  the  primary  school.  Since 
the  work  in  drawing  was  not  based  upon  form  study  until 
1880,  and  color  exercises  formed  no  part  of  that  work 
until  many  years  after,  the  kindergarten  material  was  a 
revelation  to  the  teachers,  and  the  gift  and  occupation 
exercises  gave  to  many  the  first  suggestions  concerning 
instruction  in  form  and  color.  The  success  of  the  con- 
structive exercises  carried  on  in  the  kindergarten  converted 
many  to  the  value  and  feasibility  of  manual  training  also. 
The  expense  involved  in  the  introduction  of  drawing  and 
manual  training  as  such  had  delayed  that  introduction  in 
many  instances;  but  the  success  of  the  exercises  of  a 
kindergarten  character,  which  involved  but  little  expense, 
not  only  familiarized  the  teachers  with  the  purposes  and 
methods  of  these  subjects,  but  also  prepared  the  public 
for  their  acceptance.  Where  drawing  and  manual  train- 
ing had  been  introduced  the  efforts  toward  the  adoption 
of  kindergarten  principles  strengthened  the  work  already 


220     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

undertaken.  Where  they  had  not,  the  attempts  along 
kindergarten  lines  hastened  such  introduction.  The 
children's  interest  in  doing  was  in  such  marked  contrast 
with  their  interest  in  mere  learning  —  by  the  customary 
methods  at  least  —  that  teachers  and  school  boards 
could  not  fail  to  see  that  a  new  educational  force  had  been 
discovered  and  a  new  vein  of  childish  interest  struck. 

It  was  along  such  practical  lines  as  these  that  the  in- 
fluence of  the  kindergarten  upon  the  primary  school  was 
first  felt.  It  is  a  question  whether  the  so-called  applica- 
tion of  kindergarten  principles  to  the  work  of  the  grades 
meant  much  more  to  the  average  teacher,  during  the 
decade  between  1880  and  1890,  than  the  adoption  by  the 
school  of  the  external  features  of  kindergarten  procedure. 
But  the  mere  adoption  of  these  features  led  to  a  deeper 
study  of  Froebelian  doctrine,  and  this  in  turn  to  an  insight 
that  resulted  in  better  things.  The  fact  that  the  kinder- 
garten could  obtain  results  in  the  line  of  art  expression 
that  could  not  be  obtained  by  any  other  methods  had 
led  the  advocates  of  art  instruction  as  early  as  1880  to 
reconstruct  the  system  of  art  education  on  a  basis  Froe- 
belian to  the  core.  The  result  was  the  Prang  System  of 
Art  Education.  The  Prang  System  has  been  one  of  the 
great  agencies  of  educational  reform  and  the  most  effective 
ally  of  the  kindergarten  in  placing  the  work  of  the  school 
upon  an  active  instead  of  a  receptive  basis.  Wherever 
the  Prang  System  is  used  the  principles  of  Froebel  are 
disseminated.  The  success  of  the  system  is  due  in  no 
small  degree  to  its  espousal  of  kindergarten  principles. 


INFLUENCE   IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  221 

It  has  become  one  of  the  great  agencies  for  the  spread 
of  the   kindergarten   gospel. 

But  the  art  instruction  was  not  the  only  line  of  work 
that  was  reorganized  in  whole  or  in  part  as  a  result  of 
a  growing  insight  into  kindergarten  principles.  The 
kindergarten  song  book  rendered  an  important  service 
in  carrying  kindergarten  influence  into  the  school,  as  has 
been  stated.  Since  it  was  the  agency  by  means  of  which 
kindergarten  games  found  their  way  into  the  primary 
schoolroom,  the  song  book  did  as  much  as  the  kinder- 
garten material  to  introduce  the  principle  of  activity  into 
primary  education.  But  acquainting  primary  teachers 
with  kindergarten  games  was  but  a  part  of  the  service 
the  song  book  rendered.  It  showed  a  new  conception 
of  the  function  of  music  in  a  child's  development,  and  of 
the  methods  by  which  that  development  should  be  secured. 
The  kindergartner  maintained  that  this  development  de- 
pended upon  the  cultivation  of  musical  feeling,  and  that 
this  made  the  hearing  of  good  music,  adapted  to  the  child's 
comprehension,  indispensable.  This  practically  created 
the  child's  song  and  brought  the  rote  song  into  use  as 
an  educational  instrument.  She  maintained  further  that 
the  appreciation  of  rhythmic  exercises  and  participation 
in  them  is  essential,  and  that  such  exercises  should  there- 
fore have  a  place  in  the  kindergarten  program.  She 
further  insisted  that  opportunity  for  the  interpretation  of 
music  should  also  be  given,  and  that  there  should  eventually 
be  creative  expression  in  music,  as  there  is  such  expression 
in  other  lines.     But  if  these  ideas  were  to  obtain  in  the 


222      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

music  teaching  of  the  grades,  a  new  system  of  ideals  and 
methods  was  needed.  The  principles  in  question  were 
gradually  recognized,  and  a  reorganization  of  the  music 
teaching  in  the  grades  was  undertaken.  Such  a  recon- 
struction was  hardly  more  than  conceived  of,  however, 
during  the  decade  in  question;  in  fact,  it  has  been  but 
partially  effected  even  yet.  Because  the  kindergarten 
song  book  suggested  such  a  reconstruction,  and  introduced 
games  and  dramatizations  into  the  grades,  it  has  been 
one  of  the  main  agencies  for  the  spread  of  kindergarten 
influence.  Wherever  it  has  gone  it  has  carried  the  kinder- 
garten spirit  —  the  sympathetic  interpretation  of  child- 
hood, the  love  of  nature,  and  respect  for  human  activity, 
whatever  its  form. 

The  use  of  the  kindergarten  game  in  the  primary 
school  led  to  the  reorganization  of  another  line  of  work 
also.  The  physical  needs  of  school  children  had  received 
but  scant  consideration  at  the  hands  of  school  authorities ; 
but  about  the  middle  of  the  decade  under  consideration, 
gymnastic  exercises  were  introduced  into  the  schools  of 
all  the  larger  cities.  But  the  spirit  with  which  the  children 
entered  into  the  games,  in  marked  contrast  with  the 
spirit  manifested  in  the  formal  exercises,  showed  plainly 
that  this  branch  of  school  work  had  not  yet  been  placed 
upon  a  proper  foundation.  That  there  was  needed  a 
course  of  physical  training  in  which  games  appropriate 
to  the  different  grades  should  have  a  place  was  readily 
seen.  Such  a  course  was  not  worked  out  during  the  decade 
in  question.     Like  the  needed  reorganization  in  musical 


INFLUENCE   IN  ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION  223 

lines,  it  is  hardly  worked  out  even  yet,  but  much  thought 
has  been  given  to  it  in  recent  years. 

The  reorganization  of  the  work  in  physical  training 

was  not  the  only  service,  however,  of  the  kindergarten 

game   to   the   primary   school.     The   dramatic   instinct, 

so   strong   in   childhood,    had   been   refused    recognition 

along  with  other  instincts  in  the  school  of  the  early  days. 

The  kindergarten  recognized  and  utilized  these  instincts 

and  this  was  one  of  the  reasons  for  its  appeal  to  childish 

interest.     It   gave   opportunity   for   picture   making  and 

building,  in  the  use  of  the  gifts  and  occupations.     It  found 

occasion  for  the  exercise  of  the  dramatic  instinct  in  the 

dramatization    of    human    and    animal    activities.     The 

dramatic  game  is  not  only  an  instrument  of  instruction 

peculiarly  adapted  to  childish  needs,  but  it  is  a  means  of 

expression  of  the  greatest  value.     Like  drawing,  modeling, 

or  building,  it  is  a  means  of  determining  the  nature  of  the 

child's  mental  images.     The  primary  teacher  of  the  early 

day  could  not  fail  to  see  the  significance  of  dramatic  and 

imitative  play  and  its  value  for  her  own  work,  but    the 

adoption  of  such  play  was  at  first  impossible.     To  carry 

out  dramatic  games  necessitated  her  becoming  like  the 

kindergartner,  a  jumping  frog,  a  galloping  horse,  or  a 

flying  bird  or  butterfly,  as  occasion  demanded,  and  from 

this  a  false  dignity  shrank.     If  the  kindergartner   had 

taught  the  primary  teacher  no  other  lesson  than  that  one 

must  become  a  child  with  the  children  to  succeed  with 

them,  she  would  have  rendered  the  school  an  invaluable 

service.     The  teacher  had  stood  aloof  from  the  children, 


224     THE  KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

a  being  apparently  of  a  different  order,  and  occupying 
a  different  plane.  The  kindergartner  taught  her  to  live 
with  the  children  on  their  own  level,  yet  above  it.  The 
primary  teacher  of  the  present  has  learned  the  lesson, 
and  her  success  is  measured  by  her  approach  to  the  kinder- 
garten type.  The  principle  of  dramatic  expression,  in- 
troduced into  the  school  through  the  avenue  of  the  kinder- 
garten game,  has  had  most  important  results  in  the 
primar)'  grades.  It  has  given  new  life  and  interest  to 
nature  work;  it  has  been  the  principal  means  by  which 
a  knowledge  of  the  trade  world  has  been  obtained,  and 
through  the  dramatization  of  stories  it  has  vitalized 
children's  interest  in  literature  and  history.  Dramatic 
representation  has  demonstrated  from  a  new  standpoint 
what  art  and  manual  training  had  demonstrated  from 
another,  —  that  activity  is  the  avenue  to  children's  inter- 
est, and  the  surest  means  to  their  development. 

In  the  line  of  nature  study,  too,  the  kindergarten  has 
suggested  new  ideals  and  methods  to  the  primary  school. 
As  stated  elsewhere,  the  nature  study  movement  in  the 
elementary  school  was  the  indirect  result  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  scientific  courses  into  the  colleges  and  universities. 
The  attempt  to  teach  science  to  college  students  revealed 
a  fundamental  defect  in  the  educational  system.  Students 
were  utterly  lacking  in  the  knowledge  that  must  form  the 
basis  for  all  scientific  study,  —  the  knowledge  gained 
from  direct  observation.  They  had,  moreover,  no  con- 
ception of  scientific  method,  and  no  power  of  scientific 
reasoning.     The  introduction  of  the  inductive  sciences 


INFLUENCE   IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  225 

into  the  high  schools  of  the  county  was  the  immediate 
resuh.  The  high  schools,  however,  declared  themselves 
unable  to  meet  the  demand  this  laid  upon  them  by  the 
higher  institutions  unless  a  foundation  in  the  form  of  nature 
study  was  laid  in  the  elementary  schools.  The  stimula- 
tion from  the  higher  institutions  to  science  teaching  in 
the  grades  was  invaluable,  but  the  organization  of  a  suit- 
able course  of  nature  study  was  a  difficult  matter.  The 
teachers  of  the  period  were  wholly  lacking  in  scientific 
knowledge,  material  adapted  to  schoolroom  conditions 
was  difficult  to  obtain,  and  the  purposes  of  the  work  were 
but  dimly  perceived.  The  movement  therefore  pursued 
an  uncertain  course  during  the  early  years.  The  ad- 
vocates of  art  teaching,  who  had  encountered  similar 
difficulties  in  advancing  the  cause  of  art  ^dtication,  had 
solved  their  difficulties  by  rejecting  a  course  organized 
from  the  higher  grades  downward,  and  had  constructed 
a  new  course,  as  has  been  stated,  which  began  with  the 
fundamental  interests  and  capabilities  of  the  youngest 
children,  and  proceeded  upwards.  The  necessity  for 
a  similar  reconstruction  in  the  nature  work  was  forced 
upon  the  friends  of  that  movement,  and  it  was  in  this 
direction  that  the  kindergarten  rendered  valuable  service. 
Although  the  kindergarten  did  not  solve  all  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  struggling  nature  study  movement,  it  ex- 
ercised an  appreciable  influence  upon  the  selection  of 
subject-matter  and  upon  the  methods  of  work.  This 
influence  would  doubtless  have  been  more  pronounced 
had  the  kindergarten  in  the  United  States  been  faithful 
Q 


226      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

to  the  ideals  of  its  founder.  Gardening,  nature  excur- 
sions, and  other  lines  of  nature  work  formed  an  organic 
part  of  the  curriculum  in  Froebel's  world-famed  school 
at  Keilhau ;  and  every  child  took  part  in  the  garden  work 
that  formed  a  feature  of  the  first  kindergarten  at  Blanken- 
burg.  Miss  Elizabeth  Harrison  said,  on  her  return  from 
a  tour  in  Europe  a  few  years  ago,  "Nowhere  in  the  land 
of  Froebel  did  I  find  a  kindergarten  without  its  little  plot 
of  ground  where  the  children  put  their  own  seedlings, 
tended  their  own  plants,  plucked  their  own  blossoms, 
and  in  the  autumn  gathered  and  stored  their  own  multi- 
plied seeds."  Gardening  for  the  primary  grades,  if  not  for 
the  whole  school,  should  have  been  the  result  of  kinder- 
garten influence  and  example.  School  gardens  form  an 
organic  part  of  the  school  work  in  a  few  cities,  but  these 
are  the  product  of  the  settlement  or  the  Outdoor  Art 
Association  rather  than  of  the  kindergarten. 

In  spite  of  its  failure  to  realize  its  own  ideals,  however, 
the  kindergarten  has  contributed  much  that  is  of  value 
along  nature  study  lines.  It  has  given  the  kindergarten 
children  the  right  attitude  toward  nature.  It  has  taught 
them  to  consider  plants  and  animals  as  friends  and  helpers, 
having  ways  of  their  own  that  can  only  be  learned  by 
observation.  It  has  led  them  to  think  of  the  domestic 
animals  as  needed  helpers,  deserving  of  care  and  considera- 
tion. It  has  given  thousands  of  children  an  acquaintance 
with  animal  life  by  the  care  of  pets,  such  as  squirrels, 
rabbits,  or  doves,  which  can  be  kept  in  or  near  the  kinder- 
garten room.     By  means  of  the  aquarium  and  terrarium 


INFLUENCE   IN   ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION  227 

it  has  familiarized  them  with  the  habits  of  fish,  frogs, 
insects,  and  other  lower  forms.  When  one  has  come  to 
recognize  the  animals  of  field  and  forest  as  governed  by 
motives  not  unlike  his  own,  nature  can  never  be  wholly 
uninteresting.  The  bird  building  its  nest  or  feeding  its 
young,  the  caterpillar  spinning  its  cocoon,  the  butterfly 
emerging  from  its  crysalis,  the  cricket  chirping  in  the 
grass  —  these,  and  a  thousand  other  things,  have  become 
significant  to  children  during  recent  years. 

The  plant  world,  too,  has  made  its  appeal  to  the  child's 
interest.  By  means  of  the  window  box,  if  the  school 
garden  is  impossible,  the  children  have  learned  of  the 
awakening  seed,  the  slowly  forming  bud  and  blossom, 
and  the  seed,  ripening  for  the  next  year's  round.  The 
bud  and  blossom  of  springtime,  the  changing  foliage  and 
ripening  fruit  of  autumn,  and  the  snow-covered  landscape 
of  winter  have  been  interpreted  and  idealized  by  means 
of  song,  story,  and  picture,  until  the  whole  realm  of  nature 
seems  to  the  child  a  veritable  fairyland.  The  kinder- 
garten and  the  school  have  a  different  function  to  perform 
in  the  child's  development,  but  in  the  nature  work  at 
least,  the  school  has  so  completely  adopted  the  aims  and 
purposes  of  the  kindergarten  that  there  are  no  longer 
dividing  lines.  The  primary  school  journals  and  the 
song  and  story  books  intended  for  use  in  the  primary 
grades  all  reflect  the  spirit  and  method  of  the  kindergarten 
in  its  attitude  toward  nature.  The  study  of  nature  in 
the  grades  is  successful  when  the  emphasis  is  placed  where 
the  kindergarten  places  it  —  upon  the  care  and  observa- 


228     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

tion  of  living  things,  upon  functions  rather  than  upon 
structure.  The  kindergarten  and  the  art  work  recon- 
structed upon  kindergarten  principles  have  given  nature 
study  the  place  that  it  now  occupies  in  the  school  curricu- 
lum and  in  the  lives  of  American  children. 

Another  line  of  school  work  that  has  felt  the  influence 
of  the  kindergarten  is  the  story.  Although  the  story  was 
the  first  form  of  instruction  in  human  history,  and  story- 
telling has  occupied  a  place  at  every  fireside  since  the 
world  began,  the  story  as  a  school  instrument  is  a  thing 
of  the  past  few  years,  and  story-telling  was  so  rare  an  art 
among  teachers  that  its  possession  was  a  matter  of  com- 
ment. The  place  that  the  story  now  occupies  in  primary 
work  is  due  to  two  influences,  that  of  the  kindergarten, 
and  that  of  Herbart  and  his  American  exponents.  The 
Herbartians,  like  the  advocates  of  nature  study  in  an 
earlier  period,  attempted  to  organize  a  systematic  course 
of  instruction  in  literature  for  the  whole  school.  In  this 
the  story  told  by  the  teacher  was  to  serve  as  the  founda- 
tion. The  kindergarten  began  as  it  did  in  the  case  of 
nature  study  and  drawing,  from  the  level  of  the  little 
child  and  worked  up,  leaving  the  grades  beyond  to  work 
out  their  own  special  problems.  The  child  had  had  no 
place  in  literature  until  the  past  century,  and  literature 
had  made  no  conscious  provision  for  the  child's  literary 
needs.  The  entrance  to  the  world  of  fancy  —  the  child's 
own  by  natural  right  —  was  not  until  recent  years  gained 
through  the  door  of  the  schoolroom,  and  to  acquaint 
the  child  with  the  best  in  literature  had  not  been  one  of 


INFLUENCE   IN  ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION  229 

the  recognized  aims  in  the  teaching  of  reading.  The 
school  which  had  rejected  the  child's  desire  to  picture 
and  dramatize  the  world  about  him  as  of  value  for  educa- 
tional purposes  had  failed  to  recognize  no  less  the  educa- 
tional value  of  the  child's  love  of  stories.  Here,  too,  the 
kindergarten  took  the  stone  which  the  builders  had  re- 
jected and  gave  it  an  important  place  in  the  new  educa- 
tional edifice.  The  story,  in  the  estimation  of  the  kinder- 
gartner,  is  the  means  of  interpreting  to  the  child  the  life 
of  which  he  is  a  part,  and  of  acquainting  him  with  the 
motives  that  actuate  conduct.  Since  the  child  of  kinder- 
garten age  lives  in  the  realm  of  the  imagination,  the  story 
that  meets  his  needs  must  be  clothed  in  the  garb  of  fancy; 
since  action  is  the  first  law  of  being  during  the  early  years, 
it  must  be  dramatic;  since  his  unfolding  spiritual  nature 
craves  sustenance,  it  must  contain  seed  truths  to  germinate 
and  grow  into  right  action ;  since  his  power  of  com- 
prehension is  limited,  the  story  must  be  told  instead  of 
read. 

The  kindergartner's  views  concerning  the  story  as  an 
educational  instrument  were  impressed  upon  the  primary 
teachers  of  the  early  days  by  the  successful  use  of  the  story 
in  the  kindergarten;  they  were  spread  broadcast  by  col- 
lections of  stories  by  kindergartners  that  later  found  their 
way  to  the  educational  market.  Story-telling  became 
a  feature  of  primary  school  as  well  as  of  kindergarten 
procedure,  and  the  art  of  story-telling  became  one  of  the 
tests  of  a  good  primary  teacher.  When  the  Herbartian 
movement  came  somewhat  later,  the  foundation  for  a 


230     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

course  of  literature  for  the  grades  was  already  laid.  The 
movement  to  give  children  a  knowledge  of  the  world's 
best  literature,  resulting  from  the  combined  influence  of 
Froebel  and  Herbart,  has  been  of  inestimable  value  to 
American  childhood.  The  supplementary  reader  and 
the  library  as  an  adjunct  to  the  schoolroom  are  among 
its  results.  In  the  use  of  the  story,  as  in  the  use  of  song, 
nature  work,  or  dramatic  expression,  the  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  the  up-to-date  kindergarten  and  the  up-to- 
date  primary  department  is  rapidly  disappearing.  The 
kindergarten  song  book  has  been  one  means  of  bringing 
about  the  unification  of  the  kindergarten  and  the  school; 
the  kindergarten  story  has  performed  a  like  service. 

The  adoption  of  the  story  as  a  feature  of  primary  school 
work,  like  the  adoption  of  the  other  features  of  kinder- 
garten procedure,  was  not  accomplished  at  once.  That 
kindergarten  influence  made  itself  felt  in  the  school  at 
first  along  practical  lines  has  been  already  stated ;  such 
influence  was  deepened,  however,  by  the  growing  insight 
into  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Froebelian  phi- 
losophy that  came  with  the  growth  of  the  movement. 
Certain  positive  results  had  been  realized  from  kinder- 
garten influence  by  the  end  of  the  decade  from  1880  to 
1890.  The  spirit  and  manner  of  the  kindergartner  had 
become  the  accepted  standard  for  the  primary  teacher, 
because  the  attitude  toward  childhood  for  which  the 
kindergarten  stands  had  been  accepted  as  the  true  attitude. 
The  fundamental  principle  of  the  kindergarten  —  that 
of    education    through    activity  —  had    been    recognized 


INFLUENCE   IN   ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  231 

as  the  principle  upon  which  primary  teaching  should  be 
based,  since  an  acquaintance  with  the  kindergarten  had 
shown  its  validity.  The  external  features  of  the  kinder- 
garten —  its  hand  work,  its  songs  and  games,  its  nature 
work  and  its  stories,  had  been  adopted  in  many  schools. 
The  method  of  art  education  had  been  radically  recon- 
structed as  a  result  of  its  influence,  and  a  reconstruction 
of  the  methods  of  teaching  music,  nature  study,  and 
physical  training  was  well  under  way.  The  decade 
between  1880  and  1890  was  a  significant  one  in  the  history 
of  elementary  education  because  it  saw  the  inauguration 
of  many  new  features  in  school  work.  The  decade  be- 
tween 1890  and  1900  was  even  more  significant,  since  it 
saw  the  rise  of  other  movements  destined  to  give  more 
fundamental  insight  into  the  ends  and  means  of  education, 
and  thus  into  the  new  movements  themselves.  To  under- 
stand the  later  developments  of  the  kindergarten  move- 
ment and  the  nature  of  its  influence  upon  the  work  of. 
the  grades,  it  is  necessary  to  glance  in  some  detail  at  the 
movements  in  the  field  of  general  education  that  charac- 
terized that  decade. 


CHAPTER  XII 

New  Tendencies 

The  influence  of  the  kindergarten  upon  the  school 
during  the  decade  from  1880  to  1890  had  been  mainly 
external.  The  form  of  school  work  had  been  affected 
but  the  principles  underlying  the  changes  of  form  were 
but  partially  grasped.  The  literature  of  the  kindergarten 
had  familiarized  the  public  with  the  conception  of  educa- 
tion as  a  process  of  continuous  development,  a  process 
in  which  the  child's  creative  activity  must  play  an  impor- 
tant part.  That  conception  was  illustrated  in  the  kinder- 
garten itself.  The  adoption  by  the  school  of  the  features 
that  characterized  the  kindergarten  was  an  attempt  to 
realize  this  conception  in  the  grades  beyond,  but  the  teacher 
of  insight  could  not  fail  to  see  that  such  adoption  alone 
did  not  accomplish  that  purpose.  The  realization  of 
that  conception  in  the  grades  called  for  something  much 
more  fundamental,  —  the  reorganization  of  the  school 
work  upon  a  new  basis.  Such  a  reorganization  was  begun 
during  the  last  decade  of  the  century  and  is  still  in  progress. 
The  kindergarten  prepared  the  way  for  such  a  reorganiza- 
tion, but  could  not  have  effected  it  without  the  aid  of  the 
movements  in  general  education  that  characterized  the 
period,  —  the  new  psychology  and  child  study,  and  in 

232 


NEW  TENDENCIES  233 

a  lesser  degree,  Herbartianism.  As  a  result  of  these 
movements,  however,  the  kindergarten  itself  was  chal- 
lenged both  in  its  theory  and  in  its  practice,  and  as  a  result 
has  been  materially  modified.  To  understand  the  kinder- 
garten situation  at  the  present  time,  therefore,  and  the 
changes  that  are  taking  place  in  the  curriculum  and 
methods  of  the  school,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  briefly 
the  movements  in  question. 

The  doctrine  of  education  as  a  process  of  development 
had  been  theoretically  accepted  long  before  the  decade 
now  under  consideration,  but  that  doctrine  did  not  be- 
come effective  as  a  reorganizing  principle  in  school  work 
until  reenforced  by  other  authority  than  that  of  the  educa- 
tional reformer.  The  rapid  development  of  the  biological 
sciences  during  the  seventies,  due  to  the  acceptance  of  the 
theory  of  evolution,  had  given  rise  to  a  new  interpretation 
of  life.  According  to  this  interpretation  both  mind  and 
body  are  the  product  of  the  evolutionary  processes.  A 
study  of  the  lower  forms  of  life,  both  plant  and  animal, 
had  acquainted  the  scientist  with  the  fundamental  laws 
of  life  and  growth,  and  the  relation  between  the  organism 
and  its  environment.  The  work  done  in  these  lines  made 
a  study  of  the  mental  life  from  the  standpoint  of  the  natural 
sciences  necessary.  The  "new  psychology"  evolved 
in  the  universities  of  Germany  during  the  seventies  in 
response  to  this  need,  found  its  way  to  the  leading  insti- 
tutions of  America  soon  after.  It  was  taught  at  Yale  by 
Dr.  George  T.  Ladd,  who  published  the  first  American 
book  of  importance  on  physiological  psychology.     It  was 


234     THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

taught  at  Harvard  by  Dr.  William  James  and  at  Johns 
Hopkins  by  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall.  Other  institutions  soon 
followed.  The  psychological  laboratory  became  a  part 
of  every  well-equipped  educational  institution,  and  re- 
searches in  psychology  were  carried  on  by  methods  ap- 
proved by  the  canons  of  scientific  criticism.  Since  psy- 
chology in  its  new  aspect  emphasized  the  evolution  of 
mind,  the  observation  of  children  followed  as  a  natural 
consequence.  Genetic  psychology,  and  in  fact  the  whole 
child  study  movement,  was  therefore  a  logical  outcome 
of  a  psychology  based  upon  natural  science  methods. 

The  new  psychology  differed  from  the  old  or  rational 
psychology  in  attitude,  scope,  emphasis,  and  method.  Its 
attitude,  as  stated,  was  scientific,  not  philosophic.  It  ig- 
nored metaphysical  problems  such  as  the  nature  of  the  self 
and  its  relation  to  the  universe,  and  confined  itself  to  a 
study  of  mind  as  a  reacting  mechanism.  It  placed  em- 
phasis upon  the  study  of  the  stream  of  consciousness  in 
the  process  of  functioning.  This  called  for  a  study  of  the 
neural  basis  of  the  conscious  states.  The  emphasis  thus 
necessarily  placed  upon  the  study  of  the  nervous  system 
gave  rise  to  the  term  "physiological  psychology"  as 
indicating  the  character  of  the  new  science.  The  fact 
that  the  method  adopted  was  that  which  obtained  in  the 
kindred  sciences  of  biology  and  physiology,  —  the  method 
of  observation  and  experiment,  led  to  the  use  of  the  term 
"  experimental  "  or  "  empirical."  These  terms  failed 
to  indicate  the  aim  of  the  new  psychology  however, — • 
the  discovery  of  the  laws  of  mental  life  and  growth,  and 


NEW  TENDENCIES  235 

the  principles  that  underlie  its  adjustment  to  environing 
forces.  The  terms  in  question  gave  little  or  no  suggestion 
as  to  the  value  of  the  knowledge  which  the  new  psychology 
aimed  at  as  a  basis  for  a  new  educational   structure. 

The  knowledge  of  the  mental  life  which  the  new  psy- 
chology demanded  called  for  an  acquaintance  with  the 
fundamental  facts  of  child  life  and  development,  and 
tended  in  the  direction  of  child  observation  and  study. 
The  impulse  to  child  study  from  the  genetic  standpoint 
came  from  Dr.  William  Preyer  of  the  University  of  Jena, 
who  in  1 88 1  published  a  book  of  notes  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  his  own  child,  called  "Die  Seele  des  Kindes." 
Child  study  would  doubtless  have  become  an  important 
phase  of  psychological  study  in  the  United  States  apart 
from  this,  however,  as  a  result  of  the  impulse  which  had 
brought  the  new  psychology  into  existence.  The  child 
study  movement  of  the  nineties  was  instituted  for  practical 
rather  than  for  theoretical  reasons,  however.  The  new 
psychology  as  s;iich  was  not  evolved  by  the  educational 
reformer  as  an  instrument  for  the  reconstruction  of  educa- 
tion, although  its  fundamental  significance  for  education 
soon  became  apparent.  The  child  study  movement,  on 
the  contrary,  was  born  of  the  desire  to  find  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  child's  development  at  different  stages,  the  basis 
for  a  new  educational  system.  For  the  conception  of 
education  so  reconstructed  the  world  is  indebted  to  Dr. 
G.  Stanley  Hall,  who  may  appropriately  be  called  the 
father  of  the  child  study  movement.  In  an  editorial  in 
The  Pedagogical  Seminary  in  1895,  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall 


236      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

says:  "There  are  two  ways  of  advancing  education. 
The  first  may  be  subdivided  into  what  for  want  of  better 
terms  we  may  roughly  call  the  administrative  and  the 
logical,  and  the  second  the  internal  or  bio-psychological. 
The  first  method  works  on  school  laws  and  organizations, 
adjustment  between  grades,  the  constitution  of  teachers' 
societies,  and  on  the  logical  side  draws  up  courses  of  study 
with  due  correlations,  and  effects  reforms  by  working 
from  without  inwards.  The  second  method,  assuming 
education  to  be  a  branch  of  applied  biology  and  im- 
pressed with  the  great  difference  between  logical  and 
psychological  methods,  gives  prominence  to  the  latter, 
and  would  work  everywhere  from  within  outwards.  Our 
predecessors  in  this  favored  land  gave  us  good  school 
laws,  organization  and  grading  which  we  are  improving 
as  we  are  also  buildings.  Within  the  past  year  we  have 
taken  up  the  vast  problem  of  revising  the  curriculum. 
Back  of  all  these  and  other  educational  problems,  however, 
are  the  nature  and  needs  of  the  growing  child  and  youth, 
and  the  best  sign  of  the  times  that  the  present  educational 
awakening  has  struck  deep  root  and  that  the  near  future 
will  see  greater  advance  than  the  recent  past,  is  the  fact 
that  American  teachers  are  slowly  realizing  that  the  only 
philosophic  and  even  rational  and  consistent  education 
is  ultimately  based  solely  on  a  knowledge  of  the  growth 
of  the  body,  brain,  and  soul  of  the  young  of  the  human 
species.  The  Pedagogical  Seminary  finds  its  distinctive 
character  and  standpoint  in  striving  to  aid  in  the  develop- 
ment of  this  genetic  knowledge  of  childhood  as  the  con- 


NEW   TENDENCIES  23) 

dition  of  all  educational  progress  that  is  real  or  can  be 
lasting." 

The  child  study  movement  began  during  the  decade 
between  1880  and  1890,  but  like  the  new  psychology, 
did  not  reach  its  fullest  development  until  the  following 
one.  The  desire  for  the  reconstruction  of  education  which 
brought  it  into  existence  shaped  the  general  character 
of  the  movement.  Its  advocates,  Dr.  Hall  and  his  dis- 
ciples, aimed  to  acquaint  the  public,  particularly  parents 
and  teachers,  with  the  fundamental  facts  of  child  develop- 
ment by  means  of  personal  observation  on  their  part  of 
the  children  with  whom  they  came  into  contact,  and  to 
lead  them  to  see  the  nature  of  an  education  based  upon 
such  fact^.  They  sought  to  secure  the  cooperation  of 
parents  and  teachers  in  collecting  adequate  data  con- 
cerning significant  aspects  of  child  growth,  and  by  the 
sifting  and  organizing  of  the  data  thus  obtained,  they 
hoped  to  obtain  a  body  of  principles  upon  which  to  base 
a  true  educational  theory.  Under  the  leadership  of  Dr. 
Hall  and  others,  syllabi  containing  directions  and  sug- 
gestions were  prepared  and  sent  to  interested  individuals 
or  to  societies  organized  for  the  furthering  of  the  move- 
ment. The  topics  selected  for  observation  and  study 
covered  a  wide  range.  The  growth  of  the  child's  body 
at  different  periods  as  shown  by  weights  and  measure- 
ments received  considerable  attention.  Because  of  the 
interest  awakened  by  the  new  psychology  in  the  child's 
native  impulses  and  instincts,  and  by  the  motor  activities 
in  general,  children's  plays  and  games,  their  toys  and  play 


238      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

material,  formed  one  of  the  most  interesting  lines  of  work. 
The  drawings  of  children  at  different  ages  received  special 
attention  for  similar  reasons.  The  content  of  children's 
minds,  their  use  of  language,  their  interests  and  ideals, 
and  their  moral  and  religious  conceptions  at  different 
ages  —  all  these  and  many  other  topics  were  taken  up 
for  observation  and  study.  The  child  study  work  thus 
carried  the  spirit  and  method  of  the  new  psychology  into 
every  intelligent  home  and  every  up-to-date  schoolroom. 
The  interest  awakened  by  the  child  study  movement 
was  nothing  short  of  remarkable.  Child  study  became 
the  principal  topic  for  discussion  at  teachers'  meetings 
and  educational  gatherings,  and  the  chief  subject  of  inter- 
est in  the  educational  journals.  It  was  accorded  a  place 
on  the  program  of  women's  clubs,  and  became  the  topic 
for  detailed  study  in  parents'  associations,  some  of  which 
were  organized  for  the  pursuit  of  such  study.  In  the 
normal  schools  child  study  became  the  avenue  of  approach 
to  the  study  of  psychology  and  pedagogy.  In  the  summer 
schools  no  courses  were  more  crowded  than  the  child 
study  courses.  In  the  universities  child  study  became 
a  recognized  phase  of  the  work  in  psychology.  All  the 
problems,  both  of  the  home  and  of  the  school,  seemed  on 
the  way  to  a  happy  solution  by  its  means.  The  wave  of 
immediate  interest  in  the  subject  has  passed,  but  certain 
positive  results  remain.  A  body  of  facts  concerning 
child  life  at  different  stages  has  been  built  up,  and  although 
no  specific  formulation  of  principles  for  the  guidance  of 
educational  procedure  has  been  made  on  the  basis  of  these 


NEW   TENDENCIES  239 

facts,  enough  has  been  done  to  produce  marked  effects 
in  school  work.  Child  study  has  given  parents  and  teachers 
a  deeper  insight  into  the  problems  of  education,  and  has 
brought  them  into  sympathy  with  the  newer  movements, 
—  the  kindergarten,  drawing  and  manual  training,  and 
nature  study.  It  has  given  the  average  teacher  a  new 
attitude  toward  children,  and  has  done  much  to  cultivate 
professional  interest.  Many  books  have  been  written 
embodying  in  a  manner  more  or  less  popular  the  results 
of  the  movement,  and  these  have  added  to  its  influence. 
The  child  study  movement  must  be  considered  one  of 
the  epoch-making  movements  in  the  history  of  American 
education. 

The  third  movement  to  influence  education  in  the 
United  States  during  the  decade  between  1890  and  1900 
was  the  Herbartian  movement.  The  character  of  Ger- 
man pedagogy  during  the  past  quarter  century  has  been 
shaped  largely  by  the  influence  of  Herbart,  and  in  view 
of  German  leadership  in  education  it  is  not  strange  that 
this  influence  should  have  extended  to  the  United  States. 
The  significance  of  Froebel's  doctrines  first  became  ap- 
parent through  their  embodiment  in  the  kindergarten. 
The  educational  theories  of  Herbart  made  their  impres- 
sion likewise  through  their  application  to  school  work. 
The  centers  of  Herbartian  influence  in  Germany  are  the 
universities  of  Jena,  Leipzig,  and  Halle.  The  doctrines 
taught  in  the  classroom  by  Stoy  and  Rein  at  Jena  and 
by  Ziller  at  Leipzig  are  applied  in  the  practice  schools 
connected  with  these  institutions,  and  it  is  by  the  illustra- 


24©     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

tion  of  Herbartian  principles  in  these  schools  that  American 
educators  have  been  converted  to  the  Herbartian  faith. 

Among  the  exponents  of  the  Herbartian  doctrines  in 
the  United  States,  Dr.  Charles  De  Garmo  and  Drs. 
Charles  A.  and  Frank  McMurry  take  high  rank.  During 
the  early  nineties  these  men  were  all  connected  with  the 
Illinois  Normal  University  at  Normal,  111.,  and  that  in- 
stitution therefore  became  one  of  the  principal  centers 
from  which  emanated  the  influence  of  Herbart  in  the 
United  States.  Not  only  were  the  doctrines  of  Herbart 
taught  in  the  classroom,  but  they  were  applied  in  the 
training  school.  The  curriculum  of  the  training  school 
was  reorganized  on  Herbartian  principles  as  far  as  these 
were  compatible  with  American  school  work,  and  the 
methods  of  the  recitation  were  shaped  to  meet  Herbartian 
demands.  The  graduates  of  the  school  were  thus  famil- 
iarized with  Herbart's  doctrines,  both  in  theory  and  in 
practice.  Probably  nothing  contributed  more  to  the 
spread  of  these  doctrines  than  the  many  books  written  by 
Dr.  Charles  A.  McMurry.  The  first  of  these  was  "  General 
Method,"  published  in  1892.  This  is  a  brief  general 
statement  of  the  doctrines  in  question.  "The  Method 
of  the  Recitation"  shows  the  application  of  these  doctrines 
to  the  work  of  the  classroom.  The  adoption  of  Herbartian 
methods  in  the  schools  of  the  country  is  due  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  publication  of  these  books  and  the  series 
on  "Special  Methods,"  in  which  the  application  of  Her- 
bartian principles  to  the  different  lines  of  school  work  is 
shown. 


NEW  TENDENCIES  24 1 

The  study  of  Herbart's  doctrines  was  materially  fui:- 
thered  by  the  organization  of  the  National  Herbart  Society 
about  the  middle  of  the  decade  under  consideration.  This 
society  was  auxiliary  to  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion, and  its  members  were  mainly  the  active  members 
of  that  organization.  The  meetings  held  in  connection 
with  those  of  the  National  Educational  Association  and 
the  Department  of  Superintendence  attracted  attention 
because  of  the  strength  of  their  programs  and  the  methods 
of  work.  The  papers  prepared  for  the  meetings  were 
printed  beforehand  in  the  form  of  "Year  Books,"  and  the 
discussion  of  the  papers  in  question  formed  the  program. 
The  publications  of  this  society  contain  some  of  the  most 
valuable  contributions  that  have  been  made  to  American 
educational  literature,  and  no  educational  library  is  com- 
plete without  them. 

The  immediate  interest  in  the  doctrines  of  Herbart  has 
waned,  like  the  interest  in  child  study,  but  the  movement 
as  a  whole  has  contributed  much  that  is  of  value  to 
American  education.  The  movement  did  not  awaken 
the  interest  among  parents  that  child  study  awakened,  it 
is  true,  but  its  interest  and  value  for  the  teacher  cannot 
be  questioned.  American  educators  have  never  accepted 
the  Herbartian  doctrines  in  their  entirety;  in  fact,  that 
acceptance  has  been  confined  mainly  to  certain  practical 
applications  of  his  doctrines.  His  psychology  has  not 
stood  the  test  of  modem  scholarship;  his  doctrine  of 
apperception,  however,  is  conceded  to  be  one  of  the  most 
important    contributions    to    recent   pedagogical    science. 


242      THE  KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

The  Culture  Epoch  Theory  associated  with  Herbart's 
name  has  been  rejected  as  the  foundation  for  the  American 
school  curriculum;  but  the  thought  that  the  curriculum 
of  the  elementary  school  should  have  a  character-build- 
ing content  has  helped  to  give  history,  literature,  and 
nature  study  a  permanent  place  in  grade  work  and  made 
a  return  to  the  curriculum  of  the  "Three  R's"  forever 
impossible.  A  school  program  based  upon  the  Her- 
bartian  principle  of  correlation  has  been  found  impracti- 
cable ;  but  the  attempts  in  that  direction  have  done  much 
to  emphasize  the  principle  of  mental  economy  and  to  make 
the  curriculum  an  organic  whole  instead  of  a  mere  collec- 
tion of  unrelated  subjects.  The  doctrine  of  interest 
needed  the  modification  it  received  at  the  hands  of  Ameri- 
can psychologists;  but  its  discussion  did  much  to  give 
a  more  fundamental  character  to  education.  The  move- 
ment in  general  reenforced  the  theory  of  stages  in  a  child's 
development,  although  it  considered  them  from  a  different 
point  of  view  —  that  of  the  subject-matter  of  instruction 
appropriate  to  each.  By  its  discussion  of  the  essential 
steps  in  the  teaching  process,  Herbartianism  rendered 
a  most  valuable  service  to  pedagogical  science  and  placed 
classroom  instruction  upon  a  new  and  higher  level.  The 
doctrine  of  creative  self-activity  this  movement  did  not 
recognize,  and  in  this  respect  it  was  out  of  harmony  with 
the  educational  theories  in  process  of  formation  in  Ameri- 
can education  as  a  result^of  other  tendencies.  In  general, 
however,  the  Herbartian  movement  must  be  considered  one 
of  the  most  stimulating  influences  in  American  education. 


NEW  TENDENCIES  243 

The  bearing  of  these  movements  upon  the  kindergarten, 
and  upon  the  application  of  the  principles  underlying  that 
institution  to  grade  work,  cannot  yet  be  wholly  determined. 
That  Froebel  had  grasped  by  intuition  and  insight  the 
great  educational  truths  which  psychology  has  in  recent 
years  been  seeking  to  establish  is  admitted  by  all.  It 
is  not  yet  equally  recognized,  however,  that  the  researches 
of  recent  years  have  thrown  a  flood  of  light  upon  many 
truths  but  dimly  perceived  or  wholly  unsuspected  in  Froe- 
bel's  time.  That  with  the  advent  of  this  larger  knowledge 
defects  would  be  revealed  in  the  system  of  procedure  which 
he  formulated  was  unavoidable.  The  new  psychology 
and  child  study  brought  that  larger  knowledge,  and  these 
movements  could  not  fail,  therefore,  to  affect  the  kinder- 
garten, —  to  establish  it  more  firmly  than  ever  in  the  con- 
fidence of  the  people  or  to  impair  that  confidence.  Until 
the  new  psychology  came  there  had  been  little  or  no  criti- 
cism. During  the  eighties  and  the  early  nineties  kinder- 
garten procedure  was  considered  the  ideal  which  school 
practice  should  seek  to  imitate.  It  was  not  until  about 
the  middle  of  the  decade  between  1890  and  1900  that 
criticisms  of  importance  began  to  be  heard.  The  small- 
ness  of  the  kindergarten  material  was  declared  to  be 
injurious  to  growing  nerves  and  detrimental  to  youthful 
eyes.  The  art  teacher  began  to  question  the  value  of  the 
customary  gift  and  occupation  exercises  as  a  basis  for  the 
art  work  of  the  grades,  and  the  physical  training  teacher  to 
express  dissatisfaction  with  nfany  of  the  games.  All 
these  quoted  the  psychologist  as  their  authority.     As  the 


244     THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

kindergarten  had  heretofore  met  with  approval  only,  these 
criticisms  were  not  easy  to  bear,  and  they  occasioned  the 
friends  of  the  movement  no  little  anxiety.  They  feared 
that  the  criticisms  in  question  would  undermine  public 
confidence  in  their  beloved  institution  and  overthrow  the 
movement  which  they  had  labored  so  diligently  to  establish. 
These  fears  not  infrequently  blinded  them  to  the  whole- 
some nature  of  the  criticisms  and  to  the  kindly  interest 
of  the  critics.  They  could  not  then  see  what  has  become 
apparent  since,  that  the  new  psychology  has  been  of  the 
greatest  value  to  the  kindergarten  movement,  that  it  was 
heeded  to  interpret  the  principles  of  Froebel  aright  even 
to  the  kindergartners  themselves,  and  to  make  possible 
a  fundamental  application  of  those  principles  to  grade  work. 
The  new  psychology  has  made  necessary  many  modifica- 
tions in  kindergarten  procedure,  and  will  eventually  compel 
a  reorganization  of  its  theory.  The  advent  of  the  psy- 
chologist, therefore,  marked  a  turning  point  in  the  history 
of  the  kindergarten  movement.  That  movement  could 
never  have  attained  the  influence  that  it  now  exerts  in  the 
educational  world,  however,  without  the  sanction  of  psy- 
chology and  child  study.  For  in  spite  of  the  criticism 
made  upon  certain  phases  of  kindergarten  theory  and 
practice,  the  psychologist  at  no  time  posed  as  an  opponent 
of  the  kindergarten  as  a  whole.  On  the  contrary  he  frankly 
recognized  it  as  the  only  attempt  thus  far  made  to  establish 
education  upon  a  psychological  basis,  and  commended 
it  as  an  effort  to  realize  the  very  ideals  that  he  himself 
was  seeking  to  establish.     As  a  result  the  friends  of  the 


NEW  TENDENCIES 


245 


kindergarten  were  stimulated  to  even  greater  efforts  in  its 
behalf,  and  many  who  had  thus  far  given  it  but  little  thought 
were  led  to  give  it  favorable  attention.  That  education 
is  a  process  of  development  rather  than  a  process  of  in- 
struction ;  that  play  is  the  natural  means  of  development 
during  the  early  years;  that  the  child's  creative  activity 
must  be  the  main  factor  in  his  education ;  and  that  his 
present  interests  and  needs  rather  than  the  demands  of  the 
future  should  determine  the  material  and  method  to  be 
employed,  —  all  these  principles  underlying  kindergarten 
procedure  the  psychologist  approved,  not  for  the  kinder- 
garten alone,  but  for  all  education. 

The  effect  of  such  approval  was  apparent  in  the  rapid 
extension  of  the  kindergarten  movement  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  decade  under  consideration.  As  stated  else- 
where, in  1890  the  kindergarten  had  secured  a  legal  foot- 
hold in  less  than  half  a  dozen  states;  at  present  kinder- 
gartens can  be  established  at  public  expense  in  all  but 
eleven  of  the  states  and  territories  of  the  Union.  In  1890, 
five  or  six  of  the  larger  cities  and  twenty-five  or  thirty 
smaller  ones  had  adopted  the  kindergarten  as  a  part  of  the 
school  system;  in  1902  public  school  kindergartens  were 
reported  in  four  hundred  forty.  In  1890  not  more  than 
six  of  the  state  normal  schools  of  the  country  had  established 
kindergarten  training  departments;  at  present  such  de- 
partments have  been  organized  in  more  than  fifty.  This 
remarkable  extension  cannot  be  attributed  wholly  to  any 
one  influence,  it  is  true,  but  the  emphasis  placed  by  the 
new  psychology  upon  kindergarten  education  as  a  type  of 


246      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

the  education  that  should  prevail  throughout  the  grade?  f 
was  a  factor  of  no  small  importance. 

The  strengthening  of  the  kindergarten  as  such  in  public 
favor  reenforced  the  tendency  toward  the  reorganization 
of  primary  school  work  on  the  basis  of  kindergarten  prin- 
ciples. A  difference  in  attitude  toward  the  type  of  educa- 
tion which  the  kindergarten  represents  was  clearly  discern- 
ible during  the  years  immediately  following  the  Chicago 
Exposition.  The  evidences  of  kindergarten  progress 
which  the  exposition  afforded  were  so  unmistakable, 
the  approval  accorded  that  institution  by  the  leading 
educators  at  the  Educational  Congresses  was  so  marked,^ 
and  the  phases  of  education  for  which  it  stands  were  seen 
to  be  so  clearly  in  line  with  the  most  progressive  tendencies 
that  even  the  most  skeptical  could  not  fail  to  be  impressed. 
The  hesitation  that  still  existed  in  the  minds  of  some 
concerning  the  adoption  of  drawing,  constructive  work, 
games,  and  other  features  that  had  a  kindergarten  savor 
gave  way  to  confidence  in  their  value  and  enthusiasm  over 
the  results.  The  new  movements  that  had  been  struggling 
for  recognition  and  place  in  the  school,  —  art  instruction, 
manual  training,  games,  nature  work,  etc.,  now  came  in 
with  a  rush,  and  established  phases  of  grade  work  were 
either  transformed  or  wholly  discontinued.  The  drill  on 
arithmetical  tables  gave  way  to  measurement  of  concrete 
things ;  the  learning  of  the  parts  of  speech  as  a  foundation 
for  language  training  was  icplaced  by  the  reproduction  of 
stories,  and  the  analysis  of  nature  study  material  gave 
way  to  the  observation  and  care  of  living  plants  and  animals. 


NEW  TENDENCIES  247 

f  During  the  early  period  the  kindergarten  exercises,  when 
such  were  introduced,  served  as  a  pleasant  diversion  in 
the  customary  school  grind.  The  methods  now  adopted 
in  the  regular  subjects  made  these  subjects  themselves 
interesting.  All  this  indicated  that  the  principles  under- 
lying the  kindergarten  were  being  grasped  in  their  larger 
sense.  The  establishment  of  public  playgrounds  and  the 
organization  of  vacation  schools  gave  other  evidence  of  that 
fact. 

The  changes  that  were  gradually  taking  place  in  the 
curriculum  and  methods  of  the  school  indicated  a  growing 
^tomprehension  of  a  fundamental  truth  proclaimed  by 
Froebel  and  sanctioned  by  modern  psychology,  —  that 
both  the  matter  and  the  method  employed  in  the  different 
grades  must  originate  in  the  children's  present  needs  and 
interests  instead  of  in  the  interests  and  needs  of  the  future. 
In  other  words,  the  curriculum  must  be  organized  on  a 
psychological  basis,  not  as  heretofore  on  a  logical  one. 
This  is  the  gist  of  the  statement  so  frequently  misunder- 
stood, that  education  at  any  stage  is  a  phase  of  life,  not  a 
preparation  for  it.  The  work  of  the  kindergarten  is  psy- 
chologically organized ;  the  increasing  tendency  to  organ- 
ize the  work  of  the  school  upon  the  same  principle  is  one 
of  the  most  gratifying  evidences  of  educational  progress. 
A  few  schools  have  grasped  this  principle  fully  and  are 
therefore  as  truly  Froebelian  as  the  best  kindergartens. 
The  majority  are  still  struggling  to  carry  it  into  operation. 

The  reorganization  of  the  school  curriculum  from  the 
standpoint  of  children's  present  needs  is  one  evidence  of 


248     THE   KINDERGARTEN  IN  AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

progress;  the  reorganization  of  method  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  child's  volitional  interest  is  additional  evidence. 
In  such  a  reorganization,  too,  the  kindergarten  has  led  the 
way,  although  the  new  psychology  has  shown  it  with  added 
clearness.  The  distinctive  method  of  the  kindergarten  is 
the  method  of  creative  self-activity.  That  which  has  no 
root  in  the  child's  volition  the  kindergartner  considers  with- 
out value  in  his  development.  The  fact  that  expression 
has  become  the  keynote  in  primary  school  method  shows 
that  this  principle  has  been  accepted  by  the  school  as  the 
foundation  principle  of  method.  In  art  and  manual  train- 
ing creative  self-expression  along  the  line  of  the  children's' 
fundamental  interests  is  the  constant  aim.  In  language 
originality  in  the  expression  of  the  child's  own  thought, 
whether  by  means  of  words,  pictures,  or  dramatic  action, 
is  constantly  striven  for.  In  nature  study  the  method 
pursued  is  one  in  which  the  child's  interest  and  judgment 
play  an  important  part.  A  curriculum  based  on  chil- 
dren's present  needs,  and  a  method  growing  out  of  their 
inherent  forms  of  activity,  —  these  are  the  fundamental 
characteristics  of  kindergarten  education  that  are  being 
slowly  but  surely  adopted  by  the  schools.  Dr.  Monroe 
says:  "Wherever  the  emphasis  in  school  work  is  placed 
upon  the  activities  of  the  child  rather  than  upon  the  tech- 
nique of  the  process  of  instruction,  and  whenever  develop- 
ment of  character  and  of  personality  is  sought  rather  than 
mere  importation  of  information  and  training  of  intellectual 
ability,  there  the  Froebelian  influence  is  to  be  recognized." 
The  influence  of  the  kindergarten  upon  the  school  is 


NEW   TENDENCIES  249 

clearly  recognizable  in  still  another  direction.  That  every 
child  must  be  educated  if  social  betterment  is  to  be  effected 
has  long  been  conceded.  But  in  the  estimation  of  Frocbel 
intellectual  development  as  such  would  not  alone  prepare 
the  child  for  the  place  he  is  to  occupy  in  society.  He 
maintained  that  the  school  should  make  the  practice  of 
the  social  virtues  an  organic  part  of  educational  procedure. 
The  kindergarten  is  an  illustration  of  this  theory,  and  the 
development  of  the  spirit  of  cooperation  is  one  of  the 
fundamental  purposes  in  many  of  the  kindergarten  ex- 
ercises. Mr.  J.  L.  Hughes  thus  describes  Froebel's 
initial  effort:  "Froebel's  kindergarten  was  a  little  world 
where  responsibility  was  shared  by  all,  individual  rights 
respected  by  all,  brotherly  sympathy  developed  by  all, 
and  voluntary  cooperation  practiced  by  all." 

The  use  of  the  child's  actual  relation  to  his  playmates  as 
a  means  of  his  social  development  is  exactly  in  harmony 
with  the  selection  of  the  materials  of  instruction  —  the 
curriculum  —  from  the  life  about  him,  and  with  the  organi- 
zation of  method  on  the  basis  of  his  immediate  volition. 
According  to  Froebel,  education  must  begin  on  the  child's 
level,  and  with  the  material,  intellectual  or  social,  that  has 
already  acquired  a  meaning  to  him.  It  must  proceed  by 
the  exercise  of  the  power  or  insight  gained.  In  the 
social  sense  therefore,  as  well  as  in  the  intellectual,  educa- 
tion is  and  must  be,  even  from  the  beginning,  a  phase  of 
life,  not  a  preparation  for  it. 

Until  the  kindergarten  came,  the  school  was  individual- 
istic, not  social,  in  its  tendencies.   Competition  between  the 


250      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

children  rather  than  cooperation  with  them  was  the  rule. 
The  value  of  cooperative  effort  as  a  means  of  developing  the 
right  spirit  on  the  part  of  the  children  toward  each  other  has 
been  increasingly  recognized  in  recent  years.  The  coopera- 
tion of  the  members  of  a  class,  of  grade  with  grade,  or  depart- 
ment with  department  for  a  common  end  is  becoming  an 
established  feature  in  school  work.  Combined  effort  on  the 
part  of  pupils  has  not  only  made  possible  the  decoration  of 
schoolrooms  and  the  beautifying  of  school  grounds,  but  it 
has  brought  about  a  different  spirit  among  the  children. 
Cooperative  action,  the  principle  of  the  kindergarten,  is 
becoming  the  principle  of  the  school.  The  school  no  less 
than  the  kindergarten  is  becoming  a  miniature  society  in 
which  the  laws  of  right  conduct  are  learned  by  practice. 
"He  that  doeth  shall  know"  is  a  great  truth  that  is  being 
increasingly  recognized  as  the  basis  of  educational  pro- 
cedure. That  the  curriculum  must  be  based  on  the  child's 
present  needs,  that  method  must  be  founded  on  his  own 
self-activity,  and  that  the  social  virtues  must  be  cultivated 
by  practice,  —  these  principles,  Froebelian  in  origin  but 
sanctioned  by  modern  psychology,  are  bringing  about  the 
changes  in  the  elementary  schools. 

The  doctrines  enumerated  were  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  American  school  in  many  ways.  They  were  impressed 
upon  the  teachers  of  the  country  with  rare  force  and  en- 
thusiasm by  Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker,  even  before  the 
decade  now  under  consideration.  Colonel  Parker  em- 
bodied in  himself  the  attitude  toward  childhood  which  the 
new  education  represents,  and  probably  did  more  than  any 


NEW   TENDENCIES  25 1 

Other  single  individual  in  the  United  States  to  bring  about 
the  acceptance  of  the  doctrines  in  question  and  their 
appHcation  to  the  grades.  Toward  the  latter  part  of  the 
decade  from  1890  to  1900  the  views  enumerated  received 
a  signal  reenforcement  in  the  educational  philosophy 
of  Dr.  John  Dewey.  That  philosophy  has  been  expressed 
in  many  books  and  monographs  and  need  not  be  dis- 
cussed here.  The  Herbartian  movement  also  did  much  to 
bring  about  the  acceptance  of  these  views.  Herbart,  like 
Froebel,  insisted  upon  organizing  the  curriculum  upon  the 
basis  of  the  children's  native  interests  and  experiences. 
The  effort  to  base  the  entire  course  of  study  upon  the 
Culture  Epoch  theory  is  nothing  less  than  an  attempt  to 
find  material  for  instruction  in  the  several  grades,  in  har- 
mony with  children's  fundamental  interests.  The  correla- 
tion of  studies  is  nothing  more  than  an  attempt  to  use 
appropriate  material  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  mental 
economy.  The  Herbartian  doctrine  as  such  does  not 
accept  the  child's  creative  self-activity  as  the  underlying 
principle  of  method,  but  in  this  particular  respect  American 
educators  have  taken  issue  with  those  doctrines.  The 
elementary  school  owes  much  to  the  Herbartian  move- 
ment. The  addition  of  literature  and  history  to  the  cur- 
riculum of  the  grades  in  a  form  adapted  to  the  children's 
comprehension  is  largely  the  result  of  that  movement. 
The  more  fundamental  insight  that  American  teachers 
have  gained  into  the  principles  of  the  teaching  process, 
is  due  in  part  to  that  movement  likewise.  The  conviction 
that  the  ultimate  aim  of  education  is  ethical  and  social 


252      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

rather  than  intellectual  has  been  strengthened  by  that 
influence.  Herbartianism  has  been  one  of  the  influences 
in  the  transformation  of  the  school.  That  the  doctrines 
of  Froebel  interpreted,  modified,  and  universalized  by 
modern  psychology  have  exercised  an  influence  more 
fundamental,  however,  is  generally  recognized. 

That  the  new  psychology  approved  of  the  kindergarten 
in  general  although  it  objected  to  some  aspects  both  of  its 
theory  and  of  its  practice,  has  been  elsewhere  stated. 
With  the  growing  incorporation  of  the  kindergarten  into 
the  school  these  aspects  began  to  attract  attention.  Had 
the  kindergarten  remained  outside  of  the  school  system  it 
might  have  remained  uninfluenced  by  the  movements 
that  were  shaping  general  education;  its  incorporation 
into  that  system  made  its  modification  inevitable.  Until 
such  incorporaition  became  general  the  criticisms  of  the 
psychologist  had  not  been  brought  to  bear  upon  either 
kindergarten  theory  or  practice  with  any  force ;  when  the 
school  superintendent  became  a  factor  in  kindergarten 
procedure  the  situation  changed.  From  his  knowledge 
of  psychology  and  educational  theory  in  the  larger  sense, 
he  could  point  out  to  the  kindergartner  the  reasons  for  the 
criticisms  which  the  customary  kindergarten  procedure 
had  called  forth,  and  from  the  standpoint  of  official 
authority  he  could  insist  upon  such  a  modification  of 
established  procedure  as  the  new  views  demanded.  Dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  decade,  therefore,  the  movement 
in  the  direction  of  kindergarten  modification  received 
a  great  impetus.     When  such  modifications  first  began  to 


NEW   TENDENCIES  253 

appear,  the  kindergartners  who  had  not  themselves  felt 
the  pulse  of  the  general  educational  movements  considered 
them  as  nothing  more  than  "a  failure  to  understand  Froe- 
bel."  When  the  modifications  became  more  general  those 
advocating  them  were  regarded  as  misguided  individuals 
who  had  forsaken  the  true  gods  and  effected  an  unholy 
alliance  with  the  worshipers  at  other  shrines.  But  as 
the  differences  between  the  old  forms  of  kindergarten 
procedure  and  the  new  become  more  apparent  the  kinder- 
gartners of  the  country  began  to  ally  themselves  either  with 
those  who  approved  of  the  changes  in  progress  on  the  one 
hand  or  those  who  were  opposed  to  them  on  the  other. 
The  ultimate  result  was  the'  temporary  division  of  the 
kindergartners  of  the  country  into  conservatives  and 
liberals,  the  former  clinging  to  the  established  interpreta- 
tion of  Froebelian  doctrine  and  the  mode  of  procedure 
that  Froebel  is  supposed  to  have  followed,  and  the  latter 
accepting  the  interpretation  that  modern  psychology 
and  child  study  place  upon  it,  and  modifying  the  procedure 
on  the  basis  of  that  interpretation. 

Although  many  kindergartners  have  not  yet  accepted  the 
views  for  which  the  liberal  kindergartners  stand,  the  logic 
of  events  points  to  an  ultimate  acceptance  of  those  views 
if  the  kindergarten  is  to  become  an  organic  part  of  the  school 
system.  The  liberal  kindergartncr  considers  that  psy- 
chology and  child  study  are  but  elaborating  the  principles 
which  Froebel  himself  recognized  as  clearly  as  the  knowl- 
edge of  his  time  would  permit,  and  that  the  added  insight 
of  the  present  but  furnished  the  means  of  perfecting  the 


254      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMIRICAN  EDUCATION 

institution  which  he  did  not  Hve  to  complete,  ^he  there-'* 
fore  welcomes  the  light  which  modern  science  has  thrown 
upon  the  development  of  the  child's  body,  even  though  it 
may  necessitate  a  reorganization  of  the  games  which  Froe- 
bel  considered  adequate  for  its  development.  She  rec- 
ognizes the  value  of  the  ide^  upon  which  the  system  of 
gifts  and  occupations  is  based  —  that  of  carefully  org'^- 
ized  impressions  followed  by  adequate  expression,  but 
psychology  has  taught  her  that  much  of  the  customary* 
work  with  both  gifts  and  occupations  requires  an  exact- 
ness injurious  to  undeveloped  nerves  and  muscles.  Her 
faith  in  creative  self-activity  as  the  fundamental  article 
in  the  kindergarten  creed  has  not  been  shaken,  but  she 
considers  that  much  of  the  customary  work  with  the 
gifts  and  occupations  is  not  creative  in  the  true  sense. 
She  accepts  the  Froebelian  doctrine  of  the  value  of  beauty 
in  awakening  the  child's  higher  nature,  but  her  study  of 
art  has  shown  her  that  the  child's  fundamental  art  in- 
terests lie  along  the  line  of  representation,  not  along  that 
of  formal  arrangement.  She  yields  to  no  one  in^fer  belief 
that  children  may  be  prepared  for  the  appreciation  of 
spiritual  truths  early,  but  she  can  accept  the  kinder- 
garten doctrine  of  the  symbol  as  a  means  to  this  end  in  its  • 
modern  interpretation  only.  In  these  and  many  other 
respects  the  liberal  kindergartner  considers  that  thefe  is 
opportunity  for  great  improvement,  both  in  the  theory 
of  the  kindergarten  and  in  its  practice.  In  general  she  is^ 
willing  to  submit  both  to  the  test  of  modern  educational 
insight,  knowing  that  what  is  of  true  value  will  not  be  over- 
thrown. 


NEW*  TENDENCIES 


255 


^'  The  kindergarten  movementj  like  all  other  movements, 
has  at  different  periods  in  its  history  needed  a  different 
service  at  the  hands  of  its  friends.  During  the  period  of 
introduction  the  kindergarten  itself  and  the  educational 
doctrines  which  it  embodies  needed  to  be  brought  to  the 
.attention  of  the  public;  at  d  later  period  legislative  and 
otl^  action  was  needed  to  make  possible  its  incorporation 
into  the  schi^ol  system.  These. two  purposes  have  been, 
practically  accomplished.  The  kindergarten  is  well  and 
favorably  known  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
land,  and  kindergartens  may  be  established  at  public 
expense  in  the  majority  of  the  states  in  the  Union.  A 
third  service  is  needed  before  the  kindergarten  can  become 
t  an  organic  part  of  the  school,  however,  —  a  service  that  the 
present  age  and  generation  must  render.  A  new  inter- 
pretation of  the  Froebelian  gospel  is  needed,  —  an  inter- 
pretation which  will  be  in  harmony  with  current  educa- 
*ional  thought,  and  which  will  serve  as  the  foundation  for  a 
practice  free  from  the  criticisms  to  which  the  customary 
practice  %as  given  rise.  This  need  is  expressed  in  the 
closing  passage  of  Dr.  John  A.  MacVannel's  "  Educational 
Theories  of  Herbart  and  Froebel."  He  says:  "If  Froe- 
bel's  thought  is  to  assist  in  the  educational  reconstruction 
as  k> should,  it  must  itself  be  criticised  and  freed  from 
certain  imperfect  forms  in  which  it  has  become  embodied. 
It  niust  be  modified  or  transformed  in  the  light  of  truths 
;^i^ brought  forward  by  science  and  by  the  changed  conditions 
in  the  Western  world,  —  truths  which  it  cannot  afford  to 
neglect.      'We    live    spiritually,'    says    Professor    Royce, 


256      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

'  by  outliving  our  formulas  and  thus  enriching  our  sense 
of  their  deeper  meaning.'  The  thought  of  Froebel  or 
the  thought  to  which  the  thought  of  Froebel  has  given  birth 
must  show  itself  capable  of  adaptation  to  the  varied  con- 
ditions of  the  novel  social  environment,  the  needs  and 
aspirations  of  American  life;  it  must  be  inclusive,  not 
exclusive;  it  must  show  itself  capable  of  reconciling  its 
adherents  within  themselves,  and  of  lifting  their  minds 
beyond  the  level  of  controversy;  it  must  be  self-assertive 
and  yet  self-critical,  disowning  the  unquestioning  attitude 
of  the  partisan.  Then,  and  then  only,  can  it  win  the 
triumphs  for  which  Froebel  hoped  and  labored,  and  for 
which  his  true  disciples  hope  and  labor  in  turn." 


APPENDIX 

References  on  Kindergarten  Work  in  Representative 

Cities 
Alabama. 

Alabama  Notes.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XIII,  p.  55. 

Birmingham  Notes.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  IX,  p.  397. 

California. 
Early  Kindergarten  Work  in  California.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V, 

p.  250. 
The  Educational  Movement  in  California.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol. 

V,  p.  30. 
Notes  from  San  Diego.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  234. 
The  Kindergartens  of  Los  Angeles.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VI,  p. 

71- 
Notes  from  Sacramento.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  772. 
Four  Weeks  on  the  Pacific  Coast.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  X,  p.  640. 
Our  Work  in  Los  Angeles.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  237. 
Notes  from  Oakland.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  IX,  p.  121. 
The  Way  They  do  Things  in  Santa  Barbara.     Kn.  Rev. 

Vol.  X,  p.  584. 
Report  of  the  Golden  Gate  Kindergarten  Association.     Kn, 

Rev.  Vol.  XVII,  p.  569. 

Colorado. 

Denver  Free  Kindergarten  Association.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V, 
p.  639. 

s  257 


258      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

Kindergarten  Training  in  Colorado.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VIII, 

P-  735- 
Notes  on  Colorado.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  29. 
A  Summer  Kindergarten  in  Pueblo.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  IX,  p. 

258. 
Notes  from  Pueblo.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XI,  p.  525. 
Out-of-door  Work  in   Colorado   Springs.     Kn.   Rev.   Vol. 

XIV,  p.  184. 
Denver  Notes.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  IX,  p.  329. 

Connecticut. 
Four  Months'  Progress  in  Kindergarten  Work.     Kn.  Mag. 
Vol.  XII,  p.  396. 

District  of  Columbia. 

The  Establishment  of  Public  School  Kindergartens  in  Wash- 
ington. Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  IX,  p.  200.  Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XIV, 
p.  290. 

Private  Work  Leading  to  the  Establishment  of  Public  Kin- 
dergartens in  Washington.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XIV,  p.  290. 

Kindergarten  Appropriation  for  Washington.  Kn.  Mag. 
Vol.  XII,  p.  58. 

The  Phoebe  A.  Hearst  Kindergarten  Work  in  Washington. 
Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XI,  p.  558. 

Four  Months  of  Progress  in  Kindergarten  Work.  Kn. 
Mag.  Vol.  XII,  p.  452. 

Georgia. 
Atlanta  Notes.      Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  IX,  p.  461;  Vol.  XIII,  p. 
427;   Vol.  XIV,  p.  60. 


APPENDIX  259 

Eagle  and   Phoenix  Mills   Free   Kindergarten.     Kn.   Rev. 

Vol.  XV,  p.  505. 
Notes   from   Savannah.     Kn.  Rev.   Vol.   XII,  p.    55;  Vol. 

XIII,  p.  575- 
Notes  from  Macon.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XII,  p.  241. 
Struggles  of  an  Association  in  the  Southland.     Kn.   Rev. 

Vol.  XV,  p.  570. 

Illinois. 

The  Evolution  of  the  Kindergarten  Idea  in  Chicago.     Mrs. 

Putnam  and  the   Froebel  Association.     Kn.    Mag.   Vol. 

V,  p.  720. 
The   Chicago   Free   Kindergarten   Association.     Kn.    Mag. 

Vol.  V,  p.  734. 
Miss  Harrison  and  the  Chicago  Kindergarten  College.     Kn. 

Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  729. 
Kindergarten  Representation  at  the  Columbian  Exposition. 

Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  402. 
The    Kindergarten    at    the    Columbian    Exposition.     Kn. 

Mag.  Vol.  VI,  p.  186. 
Review  of  Chicago  Kindergartens.     Pratt  Institute  Monthly, 

November,  1895. 
The  Kindergarten  in   the   Chicago  Public   School  System, 

Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  IX,  p.  679. 
Chicago  Public  Kindergartens.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  X,  p.  568; 

Vol.  XI,  p.  485- 
The  Keilhau  of  America.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  X,  p.  619. 
Chicago   Kindergarten  Institute.     Kn.   Mag.   Vol.   XII,  p. 

573- 
The  Work  of  the  Chicago  Free  Kindergarten  Association. 

Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  X,  p.  509. 


26o     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 
Kindergarten  Work  in  the  Chicago  Ghetto.    The  Outlook, 

Vol.    LVI,  p.    212. 

The   Galesburg  Kindergarten  Normal  School.     Kn.   Mag. 

Vol.  XI,  p.  694. 
Notes  from  Moline.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XI,  p.  58. 
Report  from  Peoria.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XV,  p.  448. 

Indiana. 

Free  Kindergarten  Work  in  Indianapolis.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol. 

XI,  p.  305. 
The  Kindergarten  Movement  in  Indianapolis.     Kn.  Mag. 

Vol.  XII,  p.  440. 
The   Indiana   Normal   Training   School.     Kn.    Mag.   Vol. 

XVI,  p.  458. 
Kindergarten  Work  in  Indianapolis.    The  Century,  October, 

1897- 
Notes  from  Logansport.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  546. 
Notes  from  Evansville.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  IX,  p.  326. 

Iowa. 

Notes  from  Des  Moines.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VI,  p.  577. 
Regarding  Iowa  Kindergartens.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  IX,  p.  531. 
The  Kindergarten  in  Des  Moines.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XII,  p. 

328. 
Notes  from  State  Normal  School,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa.      Kn. 

Rev.  Vol.  XVI,  p.  126. 

Kansas. 

The    Central    Church    Kindergarten,    Topeka.     Kn,    Rev. 

Vol.  VIII,  p.  355. 
Notes  from  Topeka.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  X,  p.  179. 


APPENDIX  261 

Kentucky. 
Louisville  Free  Kindergartens.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  I,  p.  281. 
A   Glimpse  of  Louisville  Kindergartens.     Kn.   Mag.   Vol. 

n,  P-  383- 

Notes  from  Louisville.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VI,  p.  827. 

Notes  from  Louisville.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  444;    Vol. 

XIII,  p.  574;  Vol.  IX,  p.  201 ;  Vol.  X,  p.  176. 
Four  Months'  Progress  in  Kindergarten  Work.     Kn.  Mag. 

Vol.  XII,  p.  393. 

Louisiana. 

The   Kindergarten   Outlook  in  New   Orleans.     Kn.   Mag. 

Vol.  X,  pp.  227,  352. 
Notes  from  New  Orleans.      Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  VII,  p.  397,  445; 

Vol.  IX,  pp.  132,  398;  Vol.  XIII,  p.  575. 

Maine. 
Notes  from  Bangor.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  310. 

Maryland. 
Four  Months'  Progress  in  Kindergarten  Work.     Kn.  Mag. 
Vol.  XII,  p.  456. 

Massachusetts. 
Review  of  Boston  Kindergartens.     Pratt  Institute  Monthly, 

November    1895. 
The  Kindergarten  in  Boston.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XII,  p.  474. 
Boston  Day  Nurseries.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XII,  p.  283. 
Mornings  in  Boston  Kindergartens.     Kn.   Rev.  Vol.  XII, 

PP-  279>  352,432- 
Four  Months'  Progress  in  Kindergarten  Work.     Kn.  Mag. 

Vol.  XII,  p.  454- 


262      THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

Winchester  and  its  Kindergartens.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XI,  p.  20. 
Notes  from  Worcester.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  IX,  p.  655. 

Michigan. 
Notes  from  Grand  Rapids  Kindergarten  Association.     Kn. 

Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  459. 
Free  Kindergarten  Work  in   Detroit.     Kn.   Mag.  Vol.  V, 

p.  558;  Vol.  XI,  p.  264. 
Autumn  Work  in  a  Detroit  Kindergarten.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol. 

XI,  p.  83. 

Sense  Training  in  Detroit  Kindergartens.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol. 

XII,  pp.  186,  218,  264. 

Notes  from  Kalamazoo.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  195. 
A  Church  Kindergarten.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  IX,  p.  572. 
Notes  from  Saginaw.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XIV,  p.  58. 
Lucretia  Willard  Treat  and  Her  Work.     Kn.   Mag.  Vol. 
XIV,  p.  482. 

Minnesota. 

Reports  from  St.  Paul.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  II,  pp.  257,  416; 

Vol.  VI,  p.  835. 
Reports  from  Minneapolis.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VI,  p.  834. 
Reports  from  Duluth.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  X,  p.  297. 
Four  Months'  Progress  in  Kindergarten  Work.     Kn.  Mag. 

Vol.  XII,  p.  459- 

Missouri. 

A  Visit  to  St.  Louis.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  I,  p.  266. 
St.  Louis  Froebel  Society.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  II,  p.  57. 
St.  Louis  Kindergartens  and  Schools.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VI, 
P-  373- 


APPENDIX  263 

A    Review    of    St.  Louis    Kindergartens.     Pratt    Institute 

Monthly,  November,  1895. 
Four   Months'   Progress    in    Kindergarten  Work.     Kansas 

City.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XII,  p.  392. 
Twenty-fifth  Anniversary  of  St.  Louis  Kindergartens.     Kn. 

Rev.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  675. 
Notes  from  Kansas  City.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XII,  p.  441 ;   Vol. 

XV,  p.  578. 

Montana. 
Notes  from  Helena.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  399;  Vol.  XIV, 
p.  665. 

Nebraska. 

Notes  from  Lincoln.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VI,  p.  733. 

Four  Months'  Progress  in  Kindergarten  Work.     Kn.  Mag. 

Vol.  XII,  p.  453- 
Notes  from  Omaha.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  611. 

New  Hampshire. 

Four  Months'  Progress  in  Kindergarten  Work.     Kn.  Mag. 
Vol.  XII,  p.  459- 

New  Jersey. 

The  Kindergarten  in  Newark.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  292. 
Notes  from  Morristown.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VHI,  p.  606. 
Notes  from  Jersey  City.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  330. 
Notes  from  Newark.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XI,  pp.  187,  316. 

New  York. 

The  Kindergarten  in  Rochester.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  S50; 
Vol.  XVI,  p.  410.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XIV,  p.  841. 


264     THE  KINDERGARTEN   IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

Brief  History  of  the   Kindergarten   Movement  in   James- 

town.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XII,  p.  305. 
The  Kindergarten  in  Buffalo.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  83.     Kn 

Rev.  Vol.  IX,  p.  132. 
The   Kindergarten   in    Brooklyn.      Kn.    Rev.    Vol.    X,   p 

462. 
Free  Kindergartens  in  Brooklyn.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XVII,  p 

471. 
Public  School  Kindergartens  of  Brooklyn.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol 

XVII,  p.  478. 
Public  Kindergartens  in  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn.     Kn 

Mag.  Vol.  XIX,  p.  549. 
The  New  York  Kindergarten  Association.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol 

XI,  p.  105;  Vol.  XVI,  p.  296;  Vol.  XIX,  p.  574.      Kn 

Rev.  Vol.  XIV,  p.  391 ;  Vol.  XVII,  p.  461. 
Public  School  Kindergarten  in  New  York.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol. 

XI,  p.  105.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XV,  p.  178. 
Kindergarten  Progress  in  the  Public  Schools  of  New  York 

City.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XVII,  p.  468. 
History  of  the  Kindergarten  in  the  New  York  Public  Schools. 

Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XIX,  p.  484. 
Early  Kindergarten  Work  in  New  York.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol. 

XVII,  p.  458- 
Settlements  and  Settlement  Kindergartens  in  New  York. 

Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XIX,  p.  610. 
Review    of    New    York    Kindergartens.       Pratt    Institute 

Monthly,  November,  1895. 
Kindergarten   Department   at   Pratt   Institute.     Kn.    Mag. 

Vol.  VIII,  p.  725. 
Kindergarten  Training  at  Teachers  College.      Kn.   Mag. 

Vol.  XI,  p.  574. 


APPENDIX  265 

Kindergarten  Work  in  the  Ethical  Culture  Schools.     Kn. 

Mag.  Vol.  XI,  p.  433. 
Kindergarten  Training  Schools  in  Greater  New  York.     Kn. 
Mag.  Vol.  XIX. 

Adelphi  College,  p.  521. 
The  Elliman  School,  p.  538. 
The  Ethical  Culture  School,  p.  511. 
Teachers  College,  p.  532. 
Kraus  Seminary,  p.  517. 
Miss  Jennie  Hunter's  School,  p.  578. 
The  New  York  Froebel  Normal,  p.  540. 
Pratt  Institute,  p.  520. 
The  Speyer  School  Experimental  Playroom.    Kn.  Rev.  Vol. 
XVII,  p.  137. 

North  Carolina. 

Notes  from  Ashville.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  234. 

Ohio. 
Notes  from  Youngstown.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  151. 
A  Model  Kindergarten  Building.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XV,  p. 

215. 
Notes  from  Toledo.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  456.     Kn.  Rev. 

Vol.  XI,  p.  449. 
Notes  from  Columbus.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  690. 
Four  Months'  Progress.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XII,  p.  398. 
The  Cincinnati  Kindergarten  Association.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol. 

XI,  p.  362. 
Notes  from  Dayton.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  IV,  pp.  261,  656. 
Notes  from  Cincinnati.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XIII,  p.  246. 
Notes  from  Cleveland.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XIII,  p.  381. 


266    the  kindergarten  in  american  education 

Oklahoma. 
A  Kindergarten  Training  Course  as  a  Department  of  a  Uni- 
versity.    Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XVII,  p.  51. 

Oregon. 
Notes  from  Portland.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XI,  p.  516. 

Pennsylvania. 

Notes  from  Altoona.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  850. 

The  Kindergarten  Movement  in  Philadelphia.  Kn.  Rev. 
Vol.  XV,  p.  300. 

Review  of  Philadelphia  Kindergartens.  Pratt  Institute 
Monthly,  November,  1895. 

Free  and  Public  Kindergartens  of  Philadelphia.  Mono- 
graph by  Mrs.  Constance  MacKenzie  Durham. 

Philadelphia  Girls  Normal  School.  Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  X,  p. 
388. 

The  Kindergarten  in  Pennsylvania.  Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XV, 
p.  489. 

The  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  Free  Kindergarten  Associa- 
tion. Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  717;  Vol.  VII,  p.  593;  Vol. 
XI,  p.  421. 

Work  in  Pittsburg.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XIII,  p.  455. 

Growth  of  the  Kindergarten  Movement  in  Scranton.  Kn. 
Rev.  Vol.  XIV,  p.  667. 

Notes  from  Erie.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  331. 

South  Carolina. 

Charleston  and  its  Kindergartens.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  IX,  p. 

253- 
Charleston    from   a   Kindergarten    Standpoint.      Kn.   Rev. 
Vol.  X,  p.  631. 


APPENDIX  267 

Notes  from  Charleston.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XI,  p.  57. 
Notes  from  Rock  Hill.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XI,  p.  379. 

South  Dakota. 
A  Black  Hills  Kindergarten.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XIV,  p.  93. 

Tennessee. 

Notes  from  Chattanooga.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  716. 

Texas. 

Notes  from  Galveston.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  376. 

Notes  from  Fort  Worth.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  IX,  p.  72;    Vol. 

XI,  p.  447. 
Notes  from  Dallas.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XIII,  p.  446. 

Utah. 

Kindergarten   Training   in   the   University  of   Utah.     Kn. 

Mag.  Vol.  XI,  p.  216. 
Notes  from  Salt  Lake  City.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XI,  p.  250. 

Virginia. 

Notes  from  Richmond.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XII,  p.  179. 
Public  School  Kindergartens  in  Richmond.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol. 
XV,  p.  129. 

Washington. 

Notes  from  Tacoma.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VIII,  p.  529. 

Notes  from  Spokane.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  X,  p.  117. 

Notes  from  Seattle.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XIII,  p.  247. 

Four  Weeks  in  the  Pacific  Coast.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XI,  p.  30. 


268     THE   KINDERGARTEN   IN   AMERICAN   EDUCATION 

Wisconsin. 
Notes  from  Milwaukee.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  312;  Vol.  XI, 

p.  331.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XV,  p.  180;  Vol.  XVI,  p.  337. 
Notes  from  Sheboygan.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  V,  p.  717. 
Notes  from  Menomonie.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  VII,  p.  552;   Kn. 

Rev.  Vol.  XI,  p.  315. 
Notes  from  Wisconsin.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XIII,  p.  120. 
The    Kindergarten    Movement    in    Wisconsin.     Kn.    Mag. 

Vol.  XIV,  p.  165.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XVI,  p.  400. 
The   Kindergarten   Movement   in   Milwaukee.     Kn.    Mag. 

Vol.  XVIII,  p.  385. 
Milwaukee  a  Kindergarten  City.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.   XVI,  p. 

387- 
The    Public    School    Kindergartens    of    Milwaukee.     Kn. 

Mag.  Vol.  XVIII,  p.  460. 
Milwaukee  Mission  Kindergartens.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  XVIII, 

p.  462. 

Canada. 
The  Kindergarten  in  Ottawa.     Kn.  Mag.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  150. 
The   Establishment   and    Growth   of   the   Kindergarten   in 

Ottawa.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XVII,  p.  497. 
The  Kindergarten  in  Canada.     Kn.   Mag.  Vol.  XVII,  p. 

325- 
The  Kindergarten  in   Canada,   Toronto.     Kn.   Mag.  Vol. 

XVII,  p.  495- 
The  Kindergarten  in  Canada.     Kn.  Rev.  Vol.  XV,  p.  463 


INDEX 


[For  references  to  cities  see  Appendix.] 


Abbott,  Jacob,  i6i. 

Addams,  Jane,  no,  in. 

Adler,  Felix,  i8. 

Esthetic  element  in  education,  43,  49, 
50,  SI,  129. 

Africa,  kindergartens  in,  91,  92. 

Alcott,  Bronson,  16. 

Aldrich,  Mrs.,  172. 

Allen,  Edward  L.,  203,  204,  205. 

Allen,  Louis  H.,  180. 

American  Journal  of  Education,  see 
Barnard,  Henry. 

Anderson,  Clara  L.,  78,  79,  176,  195, 
196,  200,  202. 

Andrews,  E.  Benjamin,   39   (quoted). 

Art  education:  beginnings  of,  5,  6,  7; 
stimulus  of  Philadelphia  Exposition 
to,  u,  7,  38,  39,  40;  introduction 
into  elementary  curriculum,  211, 
212,  214,  219,  246;  kindergarten 
influence  upon,  50,  219,  220,  231, 
248. 

Art :  in  American  life,  3,  39 ;  museums, 
galleries,  and  schools,  40,  41. 

Associations,  see  Kindergarten  Asso- 
ciations. 

Australasia,  kindergartens  in,  91. 

Baker,  George  A.,  22. 

Baldwin,  George  J.,  123. 

Barnard,  Henry,  14,  15,  27,  29,  159, 

161-163. 
Barnes,  Earl,  126,  154. 
Bardett,  Nellie  S.,  94-96. 
Baum,  Rosemary,  157. 
Beard,  Frederica,  167,  170. 
Beebe,  Katharine,  167. 
Benefactions   to   kindergarten   cause, 

68-70. 
Bigham,  Madge,  178. 


Biological  sciences,  39,  49,  233. 

Birney,  Mrs.  Theodore,  173. 

Blake,  Henry  W.,  180. 

Blaker,  Mrs.  Eliza  A.,  66. 

Blatchford,  Mrs.  E.  W.,  97. 

Blind,  kindergarten  instruction  for, 
201,  203,  204. 

Blow,  Susan  E. :  and  St.  Louis  schools, 
18,  20;  16,  185  (quoted);  163, 
167,  168,  171-174. 

Boelte,  Maria,  17,  20. 

Boone,  Richard  G.,  34  (quoted). 

Bowen,  H.  Courthope,  167. 

Bowman,  Mrs.  T.  E.,  83. 

Bradley,  Milton,  34,  180. 

Brooks,  Angeline,  135,  153. 

Brown,  Emerson  and,  176. 

Bryan,  Anna  E.,  153. 

Bureau  of  Education,  see  Commis- 
sioner of  Education. 

Burk,  Frederick,  168,  172. 

Burma,  kindergartens  in,  92. 

Burritt,  Ruth,  18. 

Business  firms,  kindergartens  sup- 
ported by,  112,  114,  116,  117,  122, 
124. 

Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  203,  206 
(quoted). 

Calkins,  N.  A.,  161. 

Cannell,  Maud,  168. 

Ceylon,  kindergartens  in,  92. 

Charity,  see  Benefactions,  and  Phi- 
lanthropy. 

Chautauqua,  kindergarten  instruc- 
tion at,  140-144. 

Chenery,  Susan,  177. 

Cheney,  Mrs.  Edna  D.,  15. 

Chicago  Exposition,  influence  upon 
education  of,  193,  194,  198,  246. 


269 


270 


INDEX 


Chad  study  movement :  origin  of,  235- 
237;  spread  of,  237-239;  effects 
of,  on  kindergarten,  8,  243;  effect 
on  elementary  education,  212-216, 
246. 

Children's  clubs,  see  Settlements. 

ChDdren's  literature,  228,  229,  230, 
242,  251. 

China,  kindergartens  in,  93. 

Christian  Examiner,  15,  27. 

Chubb,  Percival,  157. 

Church:  changes  in  doctrine  of,  9,  25, 
26,  43,  44,  45,  51,  52;  kindergarten 
adoption  by,  76,  77,  81;  kinder- 
gartens supported  by,  78,  79; 
value  of  kindergarten  to,  82-85, 
99;  auxiliaries  of,  and  kinder- 
garten promotion,  79-81. 

Civil  War,  4,  9,  25,  39,  160. 

Clarke,  Isaac,  40  (quoted). 

Cleveland,  Mrs.  Grover,  70. 

Clubs,  see  Women's  Clubs. 

Color,  use  of,  in  art  education,  213, 
219,  220. 

Commissioner  of  Education,  11,  19, 
29,  58,  66,  78,  185,  194,  196;  see 
also  Barnard,  Henry,  and  Harris, 
William  T. 

CompajTe,  Gabriel,  162. 

Congress  of  Mothers,  59,  156. 

Cooper,  Mrs.  Sarah  B.,  66-68,  77, 
135.  136.   152.  154. 

Corwin,  Dr.  Richard  W.,  118-122. 

Crane,  Rev.  Caroline  Bartlett,  85. 

Crosby,  Mary,  147. 

Crouse,  Mrs.  J.  N.,  90,  154. 

CurreiU  Literature,  45. 

Deaf  mutes,  kindergarten  instruction 

for,  201,  203. 
De  Garmo,  Charles,  240. 
Dependent  children,  kindergartens  in 

homes  for,  201,  202. 
Dewey,  John,  251. 
Dexter,  Edwin  Grant,  144,   203,   205 

(quoted). 
Dickens,  Charles,  27. 
Dickinson,  J.  W.,  22. 
Doerflinger,  Carl  H.,  32. 
Douai,  Adolph,  13,  22,  30,  36. 


Dramatic     expression     in     primary 

grades,  223,  224. 
Du  Bois,  Patterson,  173. 
Dwight,  Fanny  L.,  31. 

Earle,  E.  Lyell,  179. 

Education :  a  college  study,  49,  184, 
234,  235,  238;  physical,  222,  223, 
231;  moral,  43,  51;  religious,  43, 
51,  77,  86,  87,  143,  144;  psycho- 
logical conception  of,  3-5,  9,  49, 
160,  232,  233. 

Educational    Congresses,    147,    152- 

157- 

Educational  literature,  34,  159,  162, 
182. 

Educational  periodicals,  see  Barnard, 
Henry,  Hailman,  W.  N.,  Hall,  G. 
Stanley,  and  Kindergarten  peri- 
odicals. 

Elemenlary  school,  see  Primary  school. 

Emerson  and  Brown,  176. 

Endowed  kindergartens,  see  Bene- 
factions, and  Philanthropy. 

England,  and  kindergarten  move- 
ment, 6,  14,  27. 

Exhibits,  of  kindergarten  work,  see 
N.  E.  A.,  I.  K.  U.,  and  Exposi- 
tions. 

Expositions,  kindergarten  represen- 
tation at:  Philadelphia,  18;  New 
Orleans,  147;  Chicago,  148-151, 
193;  Atlanta,  155,  156;  Omaha, 
156;  Buffalo,  ii;7;  St.  Louis,  157, 
158. 

Factories,  kindergartens  supported 
by,  see  Business  firms,  and  Welfare 
work. 

Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  see 
Women's  Clubs. 

Feeble-minded,  kindergarten  instruc- 
tion for,  201,  205,  206. 

Fisher,  Laura,  19,  66,  69  (quoted). 

Form  study,  in  art  education,  213, 
219,  220. 

Foster,  Mary  C,  167. 

Frankenberg,  Caroline  Louise,  13. 

Franks,  Fanny,  164. 

Froebel,  Froebelian  doctrines,  Froe- 


mDEX 


271 


belian  influence,  2,  4,  8,  9,  11,  14- 
16,  24,  26,  27,  32,  33,  36,  52,  58, 
74,  163-166,  172,  185,  192,  215, 
220,  230,  243,  244. 

Games  in  primary  school,  221-223. 

Gardens,  school,  226. 

Gaynor,  Mrs.  Jessie  L.,  176. 

German  influence  in  American  educa- 
tion, 12,  13,  14. 

Gilbert,  Charles  B.,  208. 

Gilman,  Mrs.  Charlotte  Perkins,  175. 

"Goldammer's  Manual,"   163. 

Golden  Gate  Kindergarten  Associa- 
tion, see  Mrs.  Cooper. 

Gordon,  Dr.,  99  (quoted). 

Grabill,  Mrs.  Margaret,  120. 

Graef,  Virginia,  157. 

Greene,  Mrs.  E.  G.,  105. 

Gregory,  Jeannctte  R.,  167. 

Grinnell,  Elizabeth,  174. 

Gymnastics,  see  Education. 

Hailman,   Mrs.   Eudora  L.,    14,    22, 

145.  153.  154,  176. 
Hailman,  William  N.,  13,-  17,    21-23, 

30-33.  36.  131.  145.  152.  154,  157. 
161,  163,  166,  186,  206,  218. 

Haines,  Henrietta  B.,  17. 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  8,  234,  235,  237. 

Hancock,  John,  22. 

Harding,  Alary  B.,  93. 

Harris,  William  T.,  20-23,  34,  78,  79, 
153,  186,  192,  195;  see  also  Com- 
missioner of  Education. 

Harrison,  Elizabeth,  154,  166,  168, 
169,  174,  177,  226. 

Hart,  Caroline  M.  C,  66,  156. 

Haven,  Caroline  T.,  136. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  kindergartens  in,  91. 

Hearst,  Mrs.  Phccbe  A.,  67,  70. 

Heineman,  A.  H.,  163. 

Henrotin,  Mrs.  Ellen  M.,  72. 

Herbart,  Herbartian  movement,  Her- 
bartian  influence,  212,  214,  216, 
228,  229,  233,  239,  240,  241,  242, 
250. 

Hicks,  Mary  Dana,  153. 

Hill,  Patty  S.,  66,  176. 

Hill,  Mary  D.,  155,  176, 


HiU,  S.  H.,  68. 

Hofer,  Andrea,  179;  see  Mrs.  Proud- 
foot. 

Hofer,  Amalie,  136,  138,  150,  156, 
172,  179. 

Hofer,  Mari  Ruef,  176,  177. 

Hogan,  Mrs.  Louise,  173. 

Holbrook,  Dr.  M.  L.,  28. 

Holman,  Minnie,  155. 

Hopkins,  Mrs.  Louise  Parsons,  153. 

Howe,  Annie  L.,  96-100,  153. 

Howe,  E.  G.,  153. 

Howliston,  Miss,  177. 

Hubbard,  Mrs.  Clara  Beeson,  176. 

Hughes,  Mrs.  Ada  Marean,  134,  135, 
152- 

Hughes,  James  L.,  27,  249  (quoted), 
153.  167.  171- 

Idealistic  philosophy,  2,  16,  25,  26,  52. 

India,  kindergartens  in,  92,  93. 

Indian  schools,  kindergartens  in,  206, 
207. 

Industrial  education :  beginnings  of 
manual  training,  5,  6,  7;  introduc- 
tion of,  into  elementary  curriculum, 
38,  157,  211,  214,  216,  219,  246,  248. 

International  Education  Series,  162, 
163,  164. 

International  Kindergarten  Union : 
predecessors  of,  137;  formation  of, 
134-136;  growth  of,  137-139; 
services  to  kindergarten  cause,  139- 
140. 

Isham,  Samuel,  41  (quoted). 

James,  William,  8,  234. 

Japan,  kindergarten  work  in,  96-101. 

Jarvis,  Josephine,  31,  163,  164. 

Jenks  and  Rust,  176. 

Jenks  and  Walker,  176. 

Johnson,  Fanny  L.,  69. 

Johnston,  Bertha,  179. 

Johonnot,  James,  162. 

Jorgenson,  Ketchum  and,  177. 

Jourdan,  Minerva,  179. 

Jud.son,  Rev.  Edward,  81,  82. 

Kebler,  Mrs.  J.  A.,  116. 
Ketchum  and  Jorgenson,  177. 


272 


INDEX 


Kindergarten  Associations:  organiza- 
tion of,  56-58;  purposes  of,  56,  58; 
work  of,  59,  61-63;  results  of,  59, 
60,  61. 

Kindergarten  legislation  in  the  differ- 
ent states,  187-189,  192,  193,  197- 
199. 

Kindergarten  literature :  beginnings 
of,  27,  31,  35,  36;  progress  of,  159, 
162-174. 

Kindergarten  Literature  Company, 
150,  179,  181. 

Kindergarten  periodicals :  Child  Gar- 
den, 178,  179;  Kindergarten  Maga- 
zine, 178-181;  Kindergarten  Mes- 
senger, 31-33,  36,  179;  Kindergarten 
News,  180;  Kindergarten  Review, 
32,  69,  178-181,  217;  New  Edu- 
cation, 32,  33,  166,  179. 

Kindergartens  in  the  public  schools: 
experiment  in  St.  Louis,  20,  21; 
extension  of  movement  from  1880- 
1890,  184,  190,  191;  from  1890  to 
present,  192-196. 

Kindergarten  training :  beginnings  of, 
17,  20,  22;  association  training 
schools,  64,  65,  201 ;  private  training 
schools,  65,  200,  201;  kindergarten 
training  departments  in  public  nor- 
mal schools,  191,  192,  199,  200. 

King's  Daughters  and  kindergarten 
promotion,  79. 

Kraus,  John,  17,  22,  29,  30. 

Kraus-Boelte,  Mrs.  Maria,  17,  22,  23, 

30.  31.  36- 
Kriege,  Matilda,  17,  30,  35. 
Kriisi,  161. 

Ladd,  George  T.,  233. 
Laws,  Annie,  72,  135. 
Legislation,  kindergarten,  see  Kinder- 
garten legislation. 
Lewis,  Dr.  Dio,  28. 
Lindsay,  Maud,  178. 
Logan,  Miss,  92. 
Logan,  Rev.  Robert,  92. 
Lord,  Misses,  163. 

McCulloch,  Mary  C,  135,  136,  154. 
McDowell,  Mary  E.,  106. 


Mackenzie,        Constance,  61-63 

(quoted),  153,  154. 

McMurry,  Charles,  240. 

McMurry,  Frank,  240. 

MacVannel,  John  A.,  255  (quoted). 

Mann,  Horace,  16. 

Mann,  Mrs.  Mary,  28,  30. 

Mann,  Mrs.  Louisa,  70. 

Manual  training,  see  Industrial 
education. 

Marwedel,  Emma,  17,  166. 

Mason,  Lowell,  41. 

Mathews,  W.  S.  B.,  42  (quoted). 

Mexico,  kindergartens  in,  91. 

Meyer,  Bertha,  31,  36. 

Meyer,  Margaretha,  14,  15;  see  Mrs. 
Schurz. 

Michaelis,  Emelie,  163,  164. 

Micronesia,  kindergartens  in,  92. 

Milburn,  John  G.,  157. 

Missions,  kindergartens  as  an  agency 
in:  in  cities,  ig,  23,  58,  60-63,  67, 
68,77-82;  among  alien  peoples,  87, 
90,  91;    in  foreign  fields,  88-102. 

Monroe,  Paul,  248  (quoted). 

Montgomery,  B.  E.,  90. 

Moore,  H.  Keatley,  163,  164. 

Moral  education,  see  Education. 

Morley,  Margaret,  164. 

Mosher,  Mrs.  Martha,  173. 

Mother-play  book,  31,  36,  163,  164, 
167;  100. 

Mothers'  classes,  59,  60,  142,  143,  168, 
20S. 

Murray,  May,  180. 

Music:  development  of,  in  United 
States,  41-43;  introduction  into  ele- 
mentary curriculum,  40,  50,  213; 
methods  of  teaching,  influenced  by 
kindergarten,  50,  51,  174-177,  213, 


221-222. 


National  Council  of  Women,  137. 

National  Educational  Association : 
organization  of,  22,  23,  130;  crea- 
tion of  kindergarten  department, 
130,  131;  organization  of  I.  K.  U. 
at  Saratoga  meeting  of,  133-136; 
value  to  kindergarten  movement  of, 
34,  131,  132,  137,  192. 


INDEX 


273 


Nature  study  movement:  beginnings 
of,  214;  influence  of  kindergarten 
upon,  224-228,  231,  246,  248. 

Neidlinger,  W.  H.,  176. 

Newton,  Frances,  156. 

Newton,  Rev.  R.  Heber,  77,  83. 

Normal  schools:  creation  of  kinder- 
garten departments  in,  21,  22,  191, 
192;  influence  upon  kindergarten 
movement  of,  65,  192,  200. 

Object  lessons,  160,  161. 
Ogden,  Mrs.  Anna,  147. 
Oswego   Normal  School,  influence  of, 
S,  160. 

Page,  David,  160. 

Page,  Mrs.  Mary  B.,  157. 

Painting,  see  Art  in  American  life. 

Paris  Exposition,  6,  30. 

Parker,   Col.   Francis  W.,    157,    162, 

186,  192,  218,  250. 
Parsons,  Anna  Q.  T.,  15. 
Patterson,  J.  H.,  114-116. 
Payne,  Joseph,  162. 
Payne,  William  H.,  162. 
Peabody,    Elizabeth   Palmer,    12-16, 

27.  28,  31,  32,  35,  72,  137,  166. 
Pestalozzi,  5,  160,  215. 
Philadelphia     Exposition,    influence 

upon  education  of,  6,  7,  9,  18,  19, 

23.  37,  41,  57.  78. 

Philanthropy :  increasing  need  of,  in 
cities,  19,  46-48,  60,  61;  organiza- 
tion of  agencies  for,  46,  47,  53,  54; 
the  kindergarten  as  a  philanthropic 
agency,  19,  23,  58,  60-63,  67,  68. 

Philippines, kindergartens  in,  196, 197. 

Philosophy,  see  Idealistic  philosophy. 

Pierson,  Clara  Dillingham,  178. 

Pingree,  I-aliah,  6g,  136. 

Playgrounds,  establishment  of,  48,  54, 
no,  114,  177,  247. 

Pollock,  Mrs.  Louise,  13,  28,  30,  35. 

Pollock,  Susan,  17,  31,  36,  166. 

Posse,  Baron  Nils,  153. 

Poulsson,  Emelie,  32,  168,  176,  177, 
180. 

Poulsson,  Laura,  180. 

Prang  system,  220,  221. 


Preyer,  William,  ri6,  235. 

Primary  school :  the  history  of,  3,  4, 
212,  213,  215,  216;  kindergarten 
influence  upon,  50-54,  174,  178, 
186,  210,  211,  216-231. 

Private  kindergartens,  13,  195,  214. 

Proudfoot,  Mrs.  Andrea  Hofer,  167, 
174,  179- 

Psychological  conception  of  educa- 
tion, see  Education. 

Psychology,  the  new,  8,  184,  214,  216, 
232-235,  243-245- 

Putnam,  Mrs.  Alice  H.,  18,  60,  66, 
112,  154. 

Ralph,  Julian,  10 1  (quoted). 
Ramabai,  Pundita,  93. 
Rein,  William,  239. 
Religion,  changes  in,  see  Church. 
Religious  education,  see  Education. 
Renaissance,  educational,  39. 
Ronge,  Bertha,  14,  28,  35. 
Rousseau,  162. 
Rozenkranz,  162. 

Salaries  of  kindergartners,  126. 

Saunders,  Miss,  95. 

Schurz,  Mrs.  Carl,  13-16;  see  also 
Meyer,  Margaretha. 

Science  teaching:  in  colleges,  224; 
in  secondary  schools,  225;  in  ele- 
mentary schools,  225;  the  new 
psychology  a  result  of,  233;  see 
also  Nature  study  movement. 

Seaver,  Superintendent,  185  (quoted). 

Settlements:  similarity  of  kinder- 
garten association  to,  63,  107; 
methods  of  kindergarten  akin  to, 
108;  kindergarten  as  a  feature  in, 
III,  112;  value  to  kindergarten  of 
adoption  by,  109,  no. 

Shaw,  Mrs.  Pauline  Agassiz  (Mrs. 
Quincy  A.),  68,  69,  191. 

Sheldon,  E.  A.,  5,  160. 

Sheldon,  Rev.  Charles  E.,  83-85, 

Sheldon,  William  E.,  136. 

Smith,  Eleanor,  loi,  176. 

Smith,  Kate  Douglas,  66. 

Smith,  Nora  A.,  67,  167-169,  174, 
177. 


274 


INDEX 


Snider,  Denton  J.,  167,  168,  172. 

Social  movement,  the  :  beginnings  of, 
44-46,  61,  63;  bearing  upon  edu- 
cation, 52-54. 

Sociology,  introduction  into  colleges, 
39.  46. 

Song  teaching,  see  Music. 

South  America,  kindergartens  in,  91. 

Southern  Educational  Association, 
organization  of  kindergarten  de- 
partment of,  133. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  23,  32. 

Stanford,  Mrs.  Leland,  67,  71. 

Steiger,  E.,  34,  35. 

Stewart,  Sarah  A.,  134-136,   138,  154. 

Stockham,  Mrs.  Alice,  179. 

Stockham,  Cora  S.,  179. 

Story,  the  :  a  feature  in  kindergarten, 
174-178;  adoption  by  primary 
school,   214,  228-230. 

Stoy,  239. 

Strong,  Rev.  Josiah,  45,  78   (quoted). 

Summer  schools,  a  means  of  prop- 
agating kindergarten  doctrines, 
140-146. 

Sunday  school,  the,  77,  82,  86,  87, 
143.    144.   170. 

Supplementary  reading,  see  Children's 
literature. 

Symbolism,  254. 

Temperance     work,     a     means      of 
kindergarten  propagation,  103-107. 
Theology,  the  new,  9;    see  Church. 
Tomlins,  William  L.,  152. 
Treat,  Mrs.  Lucretia  Willard,  181. 
Turkey,  kindergartens  in,  94-96. 


Vacation  schools,  48,  54,  247. 

Van  Kirk,  Mrs.,  177. 

Von  Buelow-Wendhausen,  Baroness, 

139,  164. 
VonMarenholz-Buelow,  Baroness,  14, 

27.  28,  30,  35,  164,  165. 
Vreeland,  Herbert,  113  (quoted). 

Waldo,  Eveline  A.,  196. 

Walker,  John  Brisben,  173  (quoted). 

Washburne,  Mrs.  Marion  Foster,  153. 

Washington,  Mrs.  Booker  T.,  73. 

Welfare  work,  the  kindergarten  a 
feature  in,  1 12-124. 

Wheelock,  Lucy,  135,  153,  163. 

White,  E.  E.,  162. 

Whitmore,  Eva  B.,  136. 

Wickersham,  J.  P.,  161. 

Wiebe,  Edward,  30,  35. 

Wiggin,  Kate  Douglas,  66,  67,  166, 
167,  169,  176,  177. 

Wilson,  ISIabel,  167. 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  7  (quoted). 

Wiltse,  Sara  E.,  177. 

Winship,  A.  E.,  160  (quoted). 

Vv'interburn,  Mrs.  Florence  Hull,  173. 

Wise,  Margaret  E.,  168. 

Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union,  see  Temperance. 

Woman's  Clubs,  propagation  of  kin- 
dergarten movement  by,  71-75. 

Young  Women's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, kindergartens  supported  by, 
79- 

Ziller,  239. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


JUL  13  1941 


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